Weather On Other Planets

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Scientists throughout history have studied the effects of space weather. Over time, technology has advanced greatly, allowing scientists to gain a better knowledge of the workings of the solar system and thus a better knowledge of Earth. Telescopes and spacecraft have led scientists into the mysterious unknown space. Due to advances made by NASA and other space researchers, the pieces of the solar system puzzle are finally coming together. There are still several mysteries yet to be uncovered and perhaps there always will be. Yet gradually more of the processes underlying the solar system are being uncovered, and each piece of new information leads to a better understanding of the inner workings of the universe. Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, has been especially interesting to study because of the similar characteristics shared with Earth. Mars has been visited and studied many several times since the first spacecraft visit by The Mariner 4 in 165 (Arnett). Scientists believe that information recorded from Mars is necessary in order to study Earth's processes, especially the weather system.

The study of space weather and weather on other planets provides scientists with information that provides a greater knowledge of how our planet works. Jonathan Lunine, a professor at University of Arizona, believes that studying the climatic states of other planets provides an insight of planetary atmospheres and the processes of their evolution. The conditions on other planets tend to occur for extremely long periods of time, which allows scientists to compare and contrast their conditions with those on Earth (Britt). The primary factor responsible for the effects of weather is the Sun. In addition to releasing coronal mass ejections, the Sun produces solar wind and solar flares. Coronal mass ejections are released by the Sun when the strong magnetic fields in the outer solar atmosphere are closed. This causes the release of bubbles of gas and magnetic fields that explode into space. Solar flares, which are strong but temporary releases of energy, are considered the solar system's biggest explosion. The explosion is equivalent to around 40 billion Hiroshima-size atomic bombs ("Primer on Space Weather"). Earth is protected from the dangers of space weather because of its atmosphere and magnetic field. Mars does not have a global magnetic field to protect the plane from effects of the Sun such as solar flares. Mars also does not have an ozone layer. These factors cause the planet's weather system to be erratic. Mars was not always without a magnetic field but for reasons unknown it stopped working 4 billion years ago (Mars Fact Sheet). Space storms do affect Earth, just in less severe ways than other planets. These storms can affect radio and electricity interference, leading to blackouts. They also cause problems for spacecraft observers and satellites that can cost around $00 million dollars to fix. Other possible hazards including disturbances of navigation systems for airplanes and ships, radiation hazards to humans, and climatic changes (Planetary Sciences at National Space Science Data Center). Despite the fact that Mars is half the size of Earth, it is the planet most similar to Earth, mainly in rotation rate and axial tilt of its orbit ("Mars Stats"). These two factors influence the weather and climate on both planets, so the more scientists learn about Mars the more they can learn about Earth.

Mars, also known as the "Red Planet", is very cold and dry. Though it is desert-like today, that was not always the case. There is currently no liquid water on the surface of Mars because of the low-pressure atmosphere and range of surface temperatures. Scientists believe volcanoes, plate tectonics, and the agents of water, wind, and ice have shaped Mars' surface just as they have on Earth (Holmes). Similar rotation rate and axial tilt should make the seasons of Earth and Mars alike but the thin Martian atmosphere accounts for the significant differences. There is currently no active plate tectonic system on Mars but surface features are evidence for the once active plates.

The Martian Atmosphere

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The Martian atmosphere is very thin and made of carbon dioxide (5.%), nitrogen (.7%), argon (1.6%), and traces of oxygen and water. The atmospheric pressure is so low that it is less than 1% of Earth's. Mars does have a greenhouse effect but it only raises surface temperatures by 5K ("The Planets"). The results of the Martian atmosphere effect the weather, and cause temperatures to rise and fall very quickly. Scientists believe that the early Martian atmosphere was basically steam and as the surface cooled enough water was condensed, resulting in a lot of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and methane. The combination of those gases produced a thick atmosphere that would be similar to Earth's ("Weather, Climate, and Life on Mars Frequently Asked Questions…Answered"). The most likely explanation for the density change is the loss of the magnetic field. If the atmosphere remained thicker then liquid water and precipitation would be possible, thus allowing the planet to become more habitable. The atmospheric circulation system is less complex than Earth's because there are no bodies of water on Mars to influence wind patterns. Mars has its distinctive red color due to the oxidizing atmosphere that contains some material that produces iron in the surface ground, making it rusty.

Temperature on Mars

Mars is a cold planet with a range of temperatures. A warm temperature on Mars would be considered chilly by Earth standards. The average temperature on Mars is -67F, and ranges from -70F at the winter pole to 80F during the summer on the dayside of the planet (Arnett). The temperatures are coldest the closest to the ground surface because during the night the ground rapidly cools the ground. Martian temperatures vary with each day except during the winter season. These variations are mainly due to the low- pressure atmosphere and solar heating. An average warm temperature is about 40F. (Hubblesite Home Page). Mars has two hemispheric seasonal phases. They occur every Martian year, which is about the equivalent of Earth years (Mars Fact Sheet). The period of perihelion occurs when Mars is the closest to the sun and creates a 5F increase in temperatures (Hubblesite Home Page) In this southern hemispheric phase huge dust storms usually occur. The period of aphelion occurs when Mars is farthest from the sun. This takes place in the northern hemisphere. Water ice clouds commonly develop during this period because it is much cooler than perihelion.

Seasons

Seasons on any planet are created by the combination of factors axial tilt and the planet's distance from the Sun (Caplinger). Mars has greater seasonal changes than most of the other planets because of its very eccentric orbit around the Sun. It has 4 seasons and each one lasts twice as long as seasons on Earth (Mars Fact Sheet). The two hemispheres play a role in the average temperature and climate of the season. In the southern hemisphere, summer is short and considerably warm while winter is long and chilly. In the northern hemisphere, summer is long and cool while winter is short and mild. In the summer, clouds form along the tops of volcanoes. Temperatures rise but not dramatically. The high can reach to about 0C while the lows go down to -140C ("The Seasons on Mars"). Images from the NASA Hubble Space Telescope show that the best view of the planet occurs when it is springtime. During springtime the polar ice caps begin to melt and carbon dioxide is released resulting in a temporary thicker atmosphere. In autumn the polar ice caps start to expand again due to dropping temperatures (Smith). Martian seasons produce many of the surface features such as the growing and shrinking of the polar ice caps. During the polar darkness period temperatures drop so low that carbon dioxide turns from a gas to a solid. The massive amount of frozen carbon dioxide decreases Mars' atmospheric pressure by 5% (Holmes). The ground surface becomes darker during the autumn and winter seasons because carbon dioxide gas freezes to form a dense, dry ice snow. This snow collects at both of the poles.

The Hemispheres

The Southern Hemisphere is characterized by ancient cratered highlands. These highlands cover almost / of the surface (Mars Academy). Large storms and strong winds occur here because the heat from the Sun creates an atmospheric turbulence. The most distinctive features of the Northern Hemisphere are the low-lying plains. Some of these formed from lava flows. However, the majority of the plains have a texture that was possibly created due to ground ice processes. White thin clouds form in this hemisphere and are produced by the shrinking of polar ice caps.

Storms

The storms on Mars are not hurricanes or thunderstorms. Dust storms occur on Mars. Since there is only a small amount of water vapor in the air, dust is the driving force behind storm activity as it heats the atmosphere by absorbing sunlight. Like Earth hot air that rises at the planet's equator is replaced with cooler air. Trade winds result from the cooler air to circulate the dust. Dust storms cause a temperature change on the opposite side of the planet. This can cause the temperature to drop about 50F and affect the planet's heat balance, seasons, and occurrence of water vapor clouds ("Exploring the Planets"). They decrease the daytime temperature and increase the nighttime temperature. In the springtime these storms can cover the whole planet for up to several months (Tillman). Dust storms also can turn the color of clouds into yellow or red. The creation of a dust storm is quite simple. Winds above the surface have to reach a threshold of 100 mph in order to pick up the dust grains on the ground (Mars Fact Sheet). The high surface winds must be present in order for these storms to continue. The storm will cease when winds drop significantly and dust falls back to the ground. Another type of storm on Mars is called a dust devil. These are swirling circles of dust that are like mini tornadoes with a calm center similar to the eye of a hurricane ("Planet Storm"). Dust devils move across the land and pick up dust. They form during the day when the ground surface heats up and warms the air above the surface. The dust starts to spin in motion as the warm air rises. Dust devils strip the ground of its colored coating and expose the darker region underneath.

Winds

Winds are the main erosional force on Mars. Winds move around dust and sand, which leads to the seasonal changes in surface appearance. Images from The Pathfinder spacecraft observer showed that wind direction is the driving force behind surface feature roughness (Tillman). Martian winds are strongest during the early morning hours and become relatively weaker as they day progresses. Thus the weakest winds occur in the early evening. The equator rotation is faster than at other locations on the planet, leading to a tradewind-like pattern of easterlies in the winter hemisphere and a tradewind-like pattern of easterlies in the summer hemisphere. Strong westerlies are found in the polar night region and gentle easterlies are most common at the summer pole ("Mars Today"). Strong winds with speeds higher than 100 mph are also found in the tropic region of Mars. In the summer wind speeds are typically weak, ranging from 0- mph. During the fall and winter the wind speed increases to above 60 mph ("Weather, Climate, and Life on Mars Frequently Asked Questions…Answered). There is one factor to keep in mind while studying wind speeds on Mars. The force of the wind would be higher if on Earth, and are lower on Mars because of its low density.

The Sky and Clouds

Different types of clouds form on Mars. One type of cloud is called a lee wave, which form around mountains, ridges, and volcanoes. Wave clouds are found along the edges of the polar ice caps and look like rows of linear clouds. Cloud streets also form on Mars and appear as rows of bubble shaped clouds. Streaky clouds are also found on Mars. Fog is formed during the coolest part of the day and is located near valleys, craters, and canyons. Ground haze can also form by the dust in the atmosphere. Plumes are also found on Mars and usually are composed of dust particles with an elongated shape. Cirrus clouds have also been detected on Mars. In general the thicker clouds are found in the northern regions (Exploring Mars Home Page)

The sky during the day is the color of butterscotch. It turns pinkish at sunset and sunrise. The sky color is due to suspended dust particles in the atmosphere, which contain an iron oxide mineral called magnetite. The mineral absorbs sunlight through blue wavelengths which influences sky color. The Martian sky would be blue like Earth's if the atmosphere were fully rid of dust particles.

Water

It never rains on Mars because it is impossible for liquid water to form at the surface. The present atmospheric conditions account for this, yet there is evidence that it has not always been this way. Temperature variations also play a role in the lack of water. If liquid water did exist, it would immediately freeze or evaporate. Surface features and near surface ice indicates that for a period of time liquid water did occur at Mars' surface. There is a zone on Mars that resembles a layer of buried permafrost. Water ice has been detected at the north pole, and a form of snow has been found at the poles during winter. It is not like the powdery snow that occurs on Earth; this is a snow of solid carbon dioxide. The atmosphere is so thin that it can hold only little amounts of water. Along with the process of saturation, this causes the formation of thick layers of fog during cold nights (The Mars Academy).

Surface Features

Mars has a wide variety of surface features. "There are canyons over times as deep and 5 times as long as the Grand Canyon, enormous volcanoes over twice the size of Mt. Everest." ("Weather, Climate, and Life on Mars Frequently Asked Questions…Answered"). Other features include valleys, channels, sand dunes, and polar ice caps. The valleys are located almost entirely in the ancient upper highlands and are believed to be between .5 and 4.0 billion years old. The permanent polar ice caps are composed of water ice and solid carbon dioxide. They have a layered structure of ice and dark dust. Scientists believe that the southern polar ice caps are significantly growing (Onion). Each summer the polar regions lose about 1/ of its ice caps and the melting happens very quickly, causing extreme winds that blow from the poles towards the equator (The Whole Mars Catalog).

The Other Planets

Mercury

The planet Mercury is closest to the Sun, and has only been visited by spacecraft one time in 174. Due to the extremely high surface temperatures, the Mariner 10 could get close enough to map only 45% of the planet's surface. The temperature variations on Mercury are the most extreme in the solar system, ranging from 0-700K (Arnett). The lack of a substantial atmosphere accounts for the range of temperatures. The slow and eccentric orbit also contributes to the range. On the side of the planet closest to the Sun temperatures can reach up to 47C (800F). On the other side the temperature can go as low as 18C (-00F) ("The Planets"). There is no liquid on Mercury, though a radar observer of the North Pole of Mercury has indicated evidence of water ice in the shadows of some of the craters (Goddard Space Flight Center).

Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun and is considered to be the brightest object in the sky, except for the Sun and Moon (Arnett). This planet has extremely high temperatures and the heat is intense. Even though it is farther away from the Sun than Mercury, the surface on Venus is even hotter. The average surface temperature is 860F (Britt). The thick atmosphere, which is about 100 times thicker than Earth's, is made up of mostly carbon dioxide with many cloud layers of sulfuric acid. These cloud layers make it impossible to see the surface of Venus without a spacecraft visit. The runaway greenhouse effect, which occurs because of the high amount of carbon dioxide and gases that trap the heat from the Sun, contributes to the high temperatures. Venus has very strong winds (about 50 kph) at the cloud tops but at the surface the winds are very slow (Arnett). There was probably once a lot of water on the planet but has since boiled away, making the surface very dry. Much of the surface has been covered by lava flows, indicating that there once was a lot of activity on Venus. Today there are large shield volcanoes that may still be active.

Jupiter

The planet Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is also the largest planet. There are three distinct layers of clouds, made of ammonia, ice, ammonium hydrosulfide, and a mixture of ice and water. The atmosphere consists of 0% hydrogen, 10% helium, and traces of methane, water, and ammonia (Arnett). It is very turbulent, which creates high velocity winds. These winds are confined in wide bands of latitude, with the direction of the wind alternating with adjacent bands. There are vivid colors seen in Jupiter's clouds are believed to be caused by a chemical reaction in the atmospheric gases (Arnett). Jupiter has the largest storms in the solar system, and the biggest one is called the Great Red Spot. It is a high-pressure region south of the planet's equator with the cloud tops colder than the surface regions. It is considered to be a major cyclone whose range would cover the surface of Earth's combined, and covers about 1/6 of the Jupiter's surface. On the outer rim however, wind speed is estimated to be about 70 mph ("Windows to the Universe"). The Great Red Spot stretches across more than 15,400 miles. The storm rotates direction every 6 days, shifting eastward ("Planet Storm"). There are smaller storms, called ovals, appear along the edges of the Great Red Spot, and last for months or years. The Great Red Spot is believed to be at least 00 years old (Arnett). There is nothing on Jupiter to slow these storms down, for there is no solid surface. They produce massive lightening bolts that are 100 times more powerful than ones on Earth. Torrential rain is also produced. There is a broad range of temperatures on Jupiter, ranging from 0,000C at the core to about 10C at the top of the cloud layers ("The Planets").

Saturn

Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is the second largest planet yet it is also the least dense. It has a very distinctive color, which is hazy yellow due to its distance from the Sun and the gaseous atmosphere. There are also thousands of rings surrounding the planet, consisting of large particles though to be pieces of very small rock coated in frozen water and ice. The layer atmosphere of Saturn is mostly hydrogen, little helium, and traces of methane, ammonia, and propane. The top layer contains clouds made of ammonia vapors and is very cold with temperatures around 10C. The other layers contain water vapor and ammonia hydrosulfide clouds ("The Planets"). Saturn has very strong storms that are larger and more severe than Earth's. They look like huge white clouds and form a path of 1,850 miles across. There is no lightening produced from these storms. The winds are strong, and produce high speeds that can reach up to 1,100 mph. At different latitudes the wind speeds vary, with the highest speeds found at the planet's equator. The slowest winds are found near the poles ("The Planets"). The interior temperature of Saturn is very hot, and is about 1,000K at the core (Arnett).

Uranus

The seventh planet from the Sun is unique because its axis is practically parallel to the plane of its ecliptic orbit, which causes the south pole to be pointed almost directly at the Sun. It is made up of mostly rock and ices, and the atmosphere consists of hydrogen, helium, and methane. Uranus has a very faint band of clouds that blow around the planet rapidly. The planet has a blue color because of the absorption of red light by the methane gases. Uranus appears to be tilted on its side and its rings are vertical, which is different from the other ringed planets. The poles are at the sides instead of the top and bottom, meaning that the north and south poles are either exposed solely to sunlight or solely to darkness. There is a strong layer of haze found around the pole that faces the sun, giving the hemisphere a glow. There is little known about the clouds on Uranus, but they are believed to be made of methane crystals. The temperature is very cold and is on average 1C ("The Planets"). Due to its unusual tilt, the winters and summers last about 1 years each but there seems to be no extreme temperature change between the lit and dark sides of the planet. Uranus winds can reach very high speeds, ranging from 0-60 mph ("The Planets").

Neptune

Neptune, the eighth planet from the Sun, is an unusual planet. Because of the interaction with Pluto's eccentric orbit, Neptune is the most distant planet from the Sun for 0 out of 48 years ("The Planets"). It is made up of various ices and rocks, and its atmosphere contains mostly hydrogen with some helium and a little methane. Along with Uranus, this planet has a blue color as a result of the absorption of red light by methane. The winds on Neptune are located in bands of latitude and are the fastest in the solar system, reaching over 1500 mph (Arnett). The most prominent feature on Neptune is the Great Dark Spot in the southern hemisphere. Winds here blow westward at 700 mph, but recent observations show that it is gone, and a new dark spot has been observed in the Northern Hemisphere (Arnett). The seasons are very long due to the planet's rotation, orbit, and tilt and last around 40 years each ("The Planets").

Pluto

Pluto is the only planet not visited by spacecraft and even Hubble Space telescopes can only see the largest surface features. Pluto was discovered in 10 and due to its eccentric orbit, it is at times closer to the Sun than Neptune (Arnett). This is the coldest planet with surface temperatures around 6F. ("The Planets"). The temperatures vary depending on where it is in its orbit, and the coldest temperature goes down to about 80F. The composition of Pluto is a mixture of 70% rock and 0% water ice and there are bright and darkened sides (Arnett). It is very small, even smaller than Earth's Moon. For the majority of Pluto's year, the atmosphere consists of gases frozen with ice. The surface has a reddish tint due to the mixture of gases. There is evidence of polar caps. During the cold period when it is furthest from the Sun there is a possibility that the atmosphere collapses, causing a huge snowstorm that covers the entire planet. The next collapse is predicted to occur in 010 ("The Planets"). The changes in the temperature are believed to cause massive atmospheric pressure differences and produce very strong winds.

Weather systems are found on every planet in the solar system, and each planet is affected differently. In comparison to the other planets Earth has least severe conditions. They do cause some turbulence on the planet and in its atmosphere but not nearly to the same degree as the huge Martian dust storms or unbearable intense heat on Venus do. For the most part planetary weather effects (except on Earth) resemble a scenario straight out of a nightmare. Studying space and planetary weather creates a better understanding of the systematic workings of planet Earth. As technology advances the possibilities for studying other planets will be endless.

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