Is divine omniscience compatible with human freewill?

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Is Divine Omniscience compatible with human freewill?

The two most basic parts of the definition of God is that he is all powerful and all knowing, or omnipotent and omniscient. This essay will focus on the classical definition of God's omniscience and the problems that this definition creates for human free-will theory. I will outline both definitions and the problems they mutually create for each other, some alternative views of God's omniscience and also alternative views of human free-will, I will then suggest solutions to the problems from both sides of the argument and then conclude if they are compatible

The most basic definition of divine omniscience is that God knows everything, and that everything he knows is a true fact, that god has a complete and ultimate knowledge of everything. This means that God's knowledge is based on the true reality of the universe. Many theists hold that the reason God knows everything in the universe is because he created it, while others say that God's creation or non-creation of the universe is moot as the very definition of God entails that he knows everything that is true.

Most theorists imply that God cannot know absolutely everything, his knowledge is constrained by logic. He cannot know for example that +=5 as this would be a logical impossibility. Logic is held to be a universally accessible and unilaterally applicable truth to all entities, and as such is a necessary limit on God's knowledge. This means that God cannot know something that is false, as his knowledge is only of the truth.

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Because God seems to have limits on his omniscience, a basically limitless concept, it begs the question as to what other limits he has and one of the most personally pertinent is what limits his omniscience has with respect to human freewill. In order to examine this relationship I must first examine human free-will theory.

The theory of origination holds that human beings are capable of creating new causal chains by utilising their free will to make choices. The traditional doctrine of free-will or libertarianism holds that these are genuine causal chains that have the same sort of effect as any other chain. This means that unlike random events or inanimate, soulless objects that are merely links in a determined chain, human beings are capable of making their own legitimate choices.

The problem that traditional free will creates for divine omniscience and vice versa is that one cannot exist as stated if the other is true. This is because part of the theistic definition of omniscience is that God knows the events of the future, and because God only knows truth that these events have truth-value. This means that God's knowledge of the future determines and fixes these events as true and hence that humans have no ability to change these events, as humanity is merely part of God's causal chain.

For example if God knows that I will not go to my philosophy of religion lecture tomorrow, and will instead go drinking, this is a true fact and I have no ability to change this pre-determined future, as this truth will have already existed in the past and I am unable to change the past. This means that regardless of how much I might want to attend my lecture or how studious I am, events will transpire that I will not attend it, and instead I will go drinking. If I have no choice, this means that I have no free will, I merely think I do; in reality I am a completely pre-determined link in a chain.

On the other hand free-will creates equal problems for omniscience in a similar manner, if humanity actually has free will, each being an originator of their own causal chains then God must necessarily have some kind of limit on what he knows with respect to the results of their actions. The concept of free will has an obvious emotive element for most of humanity; so in order to save it free-will theorists must examine what possible limits or problems that could exist on God's omniscience. The conundrum runs that there is also an emotive element to keeping an omniscient God, so we wish to keep that too.

Firstly we must examine what God could not logically know objectively, that of facts that are by their very nature subjective. It may be that in the act of creating subjective beings, God has actually imposed a limit on his own knowledge. There are two arguments that support this idea, the argument from spatial indexes and the argument from personal indexes.

These arguments both run that there are truths that require a personal corporeal experience to know. The spatial index argument runs that since God is timeless and incorporeal he would have no ability to know what a corporeal being meant by "here" as he doesn't have a limited body. The personal index argument refers to God's limited access to our subjective experience. For example there are some truths which need an "I" or some other self-indicatory pronoun to be known such as Descartes' Cogito. It's not logically possible that another being could really understand the implications of the "I" in "I think, therefore I am" as they are not the "I" in this particular cogito.

Two possible responses exist to this objection. The first runs that it could be it's possible that God knows everything it's logically possible for a single person to know. This would allow God to still be omniscient of objective things and most subjective things. The other objection runs that if we are all part of God's mind then he possibly have the ability to perceive our minds as we would be part of his mind.

Obviously a major question with regards to God's effect on human free will is the question of the nature of his timelessness. Is God able to see the future actions of humanity at all and thus fix and pre-determine them? Philosophers such as Boethius supported this very basic assumption of God's abilities. He thought that what we take to be past, present, and future are perceived by God simultaneously in an eternal present. Boethius tries to distinguish eternity from perpetuity. He sees souls as perpetual, that they never die, but they live in time. God, on the other hand, exists entirely outside of time. He also compares divine foreknowledge with human knowledge . Just as human knowledge of present events imposes no necessity on the occurrence of those events, he sees that so too does Gods knowledge of future events doesn't actually impose a necessity on their occurrence.

This basically means that if for example he knows every true fact regardless of time and situation in the universe because he knows all the laws of the universe including those of human motivation and psychology and his limitless intelligence means that he is always perfect in his calculations, then he would be able to know anything simply through thought. Basically, this is an attempt to reject the implied necessity of God's knowledge.

This would mean that he had a "soft" understanding of the universe. This means that his knowledge of the future was like humanity's in that even if it is correct and true we don't say that our knowledge caused or determined the event. These facts would only become "hard" facts when they had actually happened. This would mean that at the beginning of time, God could have thought out the entire span of reality perfectly and knowing his own perfect nature, would have been able to take knowledge from this thought, but this knowledge didn't determine what happened in the universe it merely reflected it.

By its very nature, omniscience is infallible; therefore it seems that one is not free to choose anything other than that which God knows. This was outlined to Augustine by his disciple Evodius. Answering, Augustine states that God knows the will of man, but does not actually cause that will to be so. He explains that,

...although God foreknows our wills to be, it does not thereby follow that we do not will a thing by our will. [A] culpable sill, if you are going to have one, will be none the less your own will because God foreknows that it is to be so.

Evodius seems happy enough to accept this explanation, and proclaims that he sees the error in his previous thinking. This means that humanity would still be choosing the options; only God would know them so completely that he could predict them totally. This would mean that according to Augustine humanity would still have free will and God would still be omniscient.

The first problem with this idea is outlined by Nelson Pike; the problem is that it doesn't really seem to get rid of the problem that God's knowledge has behaviourally determining effects. Because God would always be correct in his forecasting of our actions and for his forecasts to be wrong would hold a contradiction in the nature of God, we still have no choice but to do what God knows we will do.

There is a very basic problem with the concept of omniscience regarding the set of god's knowledge being incoherent. This means that God might know every single truth in the universe but he can not know that he knows everything. This is due to the fact if he knows everything, it is another fact that he knows everything, and he would need an infinite number of these extra facts to cover the inclusion of its predecessor. This would create a logically impossible situation where he both knows and does not know everything.

Another objection to God's foreknowledge is based upon the question of whether or not future events actually have truth value at all. This is based on the idea that only the past has truth value as it has already occurred, and hence that we cannot say that anything in the future is truth until it comes into the past. It is also possible that God has no knowledge of future events as he is as bound in linear time as humanity is. This means that as God is not outside time, he cannot foresee the future any more than we can.

St. Thomas Aquinas maintained the freedom of man's will in spite of divine omnipotence, holding that God's omnipotence meant he could do all things possible or consistent with his goodness and reason, which did not include the predetermination of human will. This possible account of his omniscience runs that God can know the future and hence determine it, but chooses not to. This would be consistent with the classic Christian account of our free will as a gift from God. It would not limit God's omniscience or our free will as god has effectively delegated some of his omniscience to us, but it also means that at any time if he wished to, God could determine our actions.

Overall I see the debate over whether we have free will or if God is omniscient to be quite baffling as many of the proponents of free will impose limits on God's omniscience while still claiming he is omniscient. Even separately from the need for free-will the idea of omniscience claims that God knows everything that is logically possible to know, yet this is already a kind of limit on something that's theoretically limitless. Even if this can is a justified limit, it sets a trend that if God can set a limit on the limitless, he's already broken a logical truth, that of the law of non-contradiction. This means that God has demonstrated his ability to break a logical law by not breaking a logical law, which is a logical impossibility. I find this kind of inconsistency to be proof that God isn't omniscient, but not proof that we have free will. It's possible that God isn't omniscient and also that we don't have free-will, as God might know and determine the future through his knowledge, but also that he doesn't know everything as he is constrained by the illogical. While it claimed that God cannot know the illogical because the illogical is not knowledge it, this problem with limits at least raises the question of what are the limits that we can know God has? There are many possibilities as the exact nature of these limits but overall I must conclude that the likelihood is that God's omniscience isn't compatible as one almost necessarily takes away from the other.

Bibliography

http//www.homestead.com/philofreligion/files/Augustboethius.html

http//www.auburn.edu/~clarkc6/other/freewill.html

http//www.tyler.net/triddorus/omniscience.html

www.xrefer.com

Augustine. Divine Foreknowledge and Human Free Will. in "Philosophy of Religion An Anthology", ed. Louis P. Pojman, nd ed. (Belmont, CA Wadsworth Publishing Co., 14)

Pike N., Gods Foreknowledge and Human Free Will Are Incompatible. Ibid

Swinburne R., "The Coherence of Theism-Revised Edition" (Oxford University Press ,1)

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Communism

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Question How did the fear of communism within the US lead to a wave of terror?

During the 10's and 0's the US people were tired of conflicting situations between their nation and other evolving countries. They wanted what Warren Harding called "normalcy", isolationism, and political conservation. Most Americans disagreed with change or to be influenced by foreign people; they simply wanted to stay close to their traditional ways of living. This speculation was quickly put on ease when Russia exchanged its former rule for communism. The idea of an economic as well as social system that gave power to one political party and the idea that property is owned by the state made the US turn their heads. Though it put chills down the backs of most American citizens, it sounded like a perfect resolution to others. Because of this 70,000 people from the general public in America agreed with communism. Many turned their view of losing most of their rights to the government fashioned an over- exaggerated sense of fear. People began to put their feelings before reality which caused great chaos within the mighty nation of the United States.

The American public became even more concerned when powerful men like Rockefeller sent business letters of concern to the government. Some put the communism scare to their advantage for publicity, like Mitchell Palmer. In his instance, Mitchell used the people's fears as a source of an ideal public campaign. He called communism the 'Red' scare and convinced the Federal Bureau of Investigations to send out agents to seek communist suspects and arrest them without a warrant or trial. People were blamed and accused for being communist even if they were not. It gave some anti-immigrant citizens the right to suspect anyone not like themselves. One example of a group that formed just that accusation was the Ku Klux Klan. Even major employers used the scare to their advantage against rebellious workers. If they went on strike the managers would simply turn the story of their motives around and claim that these unionized laborers were promoting communism. Two cases of this allegation were alleged in the Boston Police Strike and the Steel Mill Strike.

Later in the 140's and 50's the same 'Red' scare began to arise again during World War Two and the Cold War. When China deemed to announce their decision to become communist, the US again were turned with fear. The Soviet Union was still a communist country that upheld a totalitarianism stature and was led by the harsh and demanding Joseph Stalin. Even though Stalin was united in the 'Big Three' and fought against one of the United States great enemies, Germany, he still managed to turn the tides. Stalin proclaimed that the US and the Soviet Union were not compatible and had different economic goals and wished to claim and control countries with communism. Americans not only feared this spread of communism but quickly distrusted Stalin and his plans for the future. United States home front was petrified and their fear rapidly transformed into terror.

At home many new organizations were again formed to 'protect' the people. One example was the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HAUC). This group was sent to seek and arrest communists. One of the first places they looked was in Hollywood. All the actors and actresses claimed loyal except ten who were referred to as the Hollywood Ten. These men felt that they were being unfairly questioned and had the right to remain silent about their personal views. Hollywood executives soon after formed a 'black list' of supposed suspects. Real criminals in the US that were caught and punished included Alger Hiss, who spied for the soviets, and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, who were convicted of selling A bomb secrets to the soviets.

One main man that used the communist scare to his advantage was Senator Joe McCarthy. He held a witch-hunt for these suspects. He claimed to have around 0 names of communists in his possession. The public went wild in terror and began to distrust everyone. Headlines, newspapers, radio stations, and the TV talked about his confessions and the people were filled with great anxiety for the outlook of their nation. It was not official that McCarthy was telling complete lies until he was put on the spot by a Senate investigation. His use of McCarthyism died when he could not claim any of the communist criminals and just as quickly, lost the popularity that he acquired. McCarthy was able to become powerful for that short time because citizens didn't have the courage to disagree with him in fear that they themselves might be accused of being a communist! People were so afraid for their life that they let people, like McCarthy, take over their fear and create a commotion of Americans emotions instead of reality.

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Equality

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"I was a better person than my neighbor until I had that thought." Today, we live in a world of social status, however everyone is "considered" equal. We are so naïve to believe that injustice occurs no longer, nonetheless, there is never one person who can stand beside another and not think himself better than that person, whether judging on popularity, affluence, or abilities in talent. Our human race believes in the lies our society makes us accept as true, we just choose to ignore the truth, unless we are that lie…

As history has proven, the human nature is very condescending and cruel, unfortunately from imbecility, immorality, and the inane pleasure of being crowned "best in the world." Inside, we have battled with ourselves to be the best we can be, and the better we can be compared to another person, the more superior we feel about ourselves. Although no one would honestly admit to this concept on account of it would show his or her weaknesses, it deviously hangs over one's head. Equality is just a word that exists in our vocabulary, but not within our actions; these actions that unconsciously portrays the real you, the actions that exhibit your lack of confidence. In the beginning of human life, we learn to treat every person as an equal, just like we would want to be treated, but in the end, all that matters is the acceptance from peers. Cruel little tricks in the beginning that make you laugh, are just a game, in the end, a battle. Was it all to be silly in the beginning, or had you really enjoyed how good it made you feel about yourself and how everyone seemed to think your were the coolest person to live? The victim on the other hand, has to desperately cling to the little power they have, and not allow those moments to make them fall to their knees and both their heads.

Popularity is a major issue where all of these problems occur. Our society thrives off materials and money; this is its way of feeling superiority because they have so much influence on everyone. Children oftentimes are left out because they do not wear "trendy" clothes that come from the most expensive stores around, or because they do not play sports, or because someone decided, they were not cool. People are naïve and hypocritical because those who had once been the victim and miraculously were accepted in the world of the "cool", tried to bring about the good, except they brought out the worst in themselves. They could never show their true colors to those who would not allow them to see. Instead they lived their lives in captivity and allowed the vicious cycle to rip through everyone, including those who looked up to them to free them from such a ravenous life of torment. All of these consequences later turn on you and blow you off your pedestal, and those who were at the bottom worked to rise to the top on account of their hard work to get past their status.

Online essay help on Equality

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What are the objectives for a director for Act 2 Scene 2 and how would these be communicated to the audience?

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Act Scene is a very important scene in the play Macbeth in terms of its drama and tension. It reveals key features in terms of Lady Macbeth and Macbeth's relationship and their reaction, in private, to the horror of King Duncan's murder. A director can interpretate this scene in many different ways but must communicate to the audience that this is a scene in which both characters face the reality of what they have done.

The main aim and objectives for a director is to convey the mood and the atmosphere of the scene. There is panic and a sense of danger and urgency throughout the scene because as the audiences, we know Macbeth has just gone to kill Duncun and at the beginning there is a sense of anticipation as the audience know Lady Macbeth is waiting for him to come and confirm to her that he has 'done the deed'. Here is an element of suspense too because as Lady Macbeth is waiting for Macbeth's arrival but we also sense her fear that someone may come and catch them. It is important for a director to understand how to communicate this to the audience through the staging. In the RSC production, directed by Gregory Doran, the stage was set to suggest the space inside a castle. The place created shadows and noises as the characters moved from one place to another. This staging created a very cold and dark atmosphere due to the colours that were used, which were black, grey and whites. Visually, this contrasted a great deal with the image of blood dominant with the scene.

Lady Macbeth helps to convey the mood and atmosphere at the beginning of the scene by using the staging. In the RSC production, Lady Macbeth, played by Harriet Walter, uses the staging quite well. She does this by moving with the space from one place to another which almost suggests she is trying to disguise herself from being noticed by anyone around. This also points out her weakness and allows herself to be more honest. She delivers her lines in a fast pace but in a hurried whisper so that no one can hear her and this shows the different thoughts and worries going through her mind. Her movement and the way she breathes heavily shows there is an element of panic and urgency. Here we see her fear because before she comes into the scene, she drinks alcohol to give herself dutch courage and this contradicts our first impressions of her which was of a strong, determined and a very ambitious woman when she called upon the spirits of darkness to give her strength to carry out Duncan's murder

'Come, you sprits that tend on mortal thoughts! Unsex me here, and fill me form the crown to the toe top of direst cruelty…'

Here she wants the sprits to take away all the kindness and fill her mind with the cruellest thoughts to kill Duncan. However, by drinking alcohol, we as the audience, know the fears and insecurities she has which is she is fear if the murder does not take place and someone catches them. Indeed Lady Macbeth says that she, herself, would have killed Duncan herself if he did not remind her of her father. This has a sense if irony because earlier on she calls Macbeth a 'coward' for being afraid to kill Duncun when in fact it is

her who is afraid of the situation. Furthermore, Lady Macbeth is easily startled by noises around her and she to calm herself down - 'Peace!'

The situation intensifies further by Macbeth's entry, this is because he has just killed Duncun. There is a sense of danger and urgency which is conveyed by the structure of dialogue which is quick pace with short questions and reply. Within this dialogue, there is a sense of confusion because Macbeth thinks he has heard noises and also that he appears to be lost more in his thoughts about what he has just done than what Lady Macbeth is trying to tell him. The spacing in the RSC production Gregory Doran helps to convey this through the actors body language and positioning.

Macbeth's state of mind also changes the mood of the scene after his entry. He regrets what he has done and when he looks at his hands he says

'This is a sorry sight'

He says this because he feels very guilty of what he has done and he realises he can not say 'Amen' because he has aware of committing the act of regicide. From here the tension starts to grow and this comes from Lady Macbeth's attempt to calming Macbeth down. She uses variety of tactics to calm Macbeth and she does this by appealing to his sense of masculinity

'Why worth thane, you do unbend your noble strength to think so brain sickly of things…'

She tries to persuade him to focus on practical things than brooding the crime. In the RSC production Lady Macbeth attempts to calm him down physically by putting her hands on to his mouth a she is scared of him shouting. This is shown in the RSC production.

When Macbeth sees the blood on his hands he broods on what he has done

'As they had seen me with these hangman's hands…'

A Jacobean audience would have recognised the connection to 'hangman's hands' immediately. A hangman would have also had responsibilities for drawing and quartering people at public executions. Ironically, this was reserved for traitors and in committing the crime of regicide. Macbeth realises this and is guilty of treason. This is visually important and significant because it demonstrates Macbeth's attitude to what he has done and this suggests the brutality of the crime.

When Macbeth refuses to put the daggers back, Lady Macbeth makes a decision and acts upon it but because Macbeth is on the edge of losing control. In the RSC production, Gregory Doran demonstrates Antony Sher (Macbeth) holding the daggers in a way that Harriet Walter (Lady Macbeth) feels a sense of threat and tells him

'Infirm of purpose. Give me the daggers…'

Lady Macbeth is frustrated at Macbeth and annoyed at his behaviour. This shows that Macbeth feels really guilty of his actions despite being a solider who is used to blood shed

'Unsieved him from the nave and chaps…'

Lady Macbeth knows that Macbeth is used to bloodshed and performed acts of brutality. However, in killing the King he almost feels that he is damned. Lady Macbeth decides to be practical and takes the daggers from him and belittles him. We see Lady Macbeth be practical before this Act and this was when she persuades Macbeth and tells him she has got a plan

'Leave all the rest to me.'

This shows Lady Macbeth is a very determined woman who would do anything to get what she wants. She becomes dominant and 'masculine'. This is ironic because of what Macbeth says to her earlier in the play

'…bring forth male children…'

This shows Lady Macbeth's stereotypical masculine role in their relationship and how she takes control of the situation.

Before, Lady Macbeth and Macbeth think they hear noises but later they realise that there is knocking on the door. This is the first time the scene is making contact with the outside world. This is why the pace changes as well as the atmosphere. There is a sense of immediacy as they have to return to the chamber and hide all the evidence without being seen. As Macbeth hears the knocking, he becomes lost in his thoughts and Lady Macbeth becomes practical to tell him to go back to bed and put on his night gown so that no one suspects them. At the end of this scene, Macbeth shouts

'Wake Duncan with thy knocking! I would thou couldst!'

and there is a sense of genuine stress and concern from Lady Macbeth for Macbeth and for her safety.

This scene is very important in terms of the dramatic irony used and in terms of what happens to the characters later in the play. A good director will convey this through strong performances, the character's behaviour and responses, leaving an impression on the audiences. Although Lady Macbeth appears strong in this scene, Macbeth is afraid of what will happen. Ironically later in the play it is Lady Macbeth who is guilt ridden and cannot sleep or rest easily. Macbeth feels guilt stricken as he is on the verge of losing control a she feels damned and will be able to sleep easily or rest.

'Sleep no more…Glamis hath murder'd sleep…'

Ironically, after Macbeth becomes King, Lady Macbeth looses her dominance and Macbeth becomes stronger. Macbeth feels distraught and convinced that he has murdered 'the innocent sleep' and that his hands will never be clean no matter how much water he outs on his hands

'Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood clean form my hand?'

In the RSC production Gregory Doran conveys this across to the audience by Antony Sher (Macbeth) raising his hands and looking at it. This shows how much concerned he is in committing the act of regicide. The response to this from Lady Macbeth is dismissive, she is practical and scornfully reassures him that

'A little water clears us of this deed…'

However, after Banquo's ghost scene, Lady Macbeth is driven mad by what they have done and this reflects back to what she had said to Macbeth which was

'These deeds must not be thought after these ways; so, it will make is mad.'

After she goes mad, in performance, Lady Macbeth sleep walks and her concerns reveal her state of mind but they also recall her former self

'Yet who would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him.'

This is a reference to their blood stained hands after the murder of Duncun. In the same way, the never ending washing of her hands and her complaint

'What, will these hands ne'er be clean?'

is an ironic reference to the advice she gave to her husband in the scene where Duncun was killed with great confidence and practical

'A little water will clear us of this deed.'

Lady Macbeth also uses her hands as actions to wash away the blood she thinks is there and she also makes other references about what she and Macbeth said that night of the murder. At the scene of the crime, Lady Macbeth felt that their guilt would be quickly and easily washed away but in her mind, Lady Macbeth realises that she will never be able to get rid of her guilt. Her thoughts appear to be spoken at random, but there is a kind of insane logic in them. Later, Lady Macbeth becomes over welmed of what they have done and dies with the guilt.

The imagery and language used in this scene are very important especially 'blood' because it becomes powerful when performing on the stage throughout the entire play.

'I am in blood stepp'd so far, that, should I wade no more, returning were as tedious as go o'er.'

Here Macbeth describes his position, now that he has got power. He explains he is trapped and troubled and he knows that he has to do more murders to gain more power. The word 'blood' is a dominate image itself in performance and in context because it highlights the scene visually and in language.

If I were to direct this scene then I would want to bring out the human side of Lady Macbeth. Before she arrives into the scene she drinks alcohol to give herself ductch courage but when Macbeth shows his fear we see her fear too. However, it is evident that Lady Macbeth's character can be played differently then the human side, which can be strong and more dominant yet we do see aspects of her human side as she arrives into the scene.

The overall aims and objectives for any director to direct this particular scene would be to maintain the mood and atmosphere, to clearly show the confusion on Macbeth's facial, body language a s well as the way he delivers his lines and to highlight the actions of 'blood' visually and in context. Furthermore, how Lady Macbeth appears dominate and practical towards Macbeth and herself after the deed has been done, but most important of all it is how this is to be communicated to the audience.

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Sports

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Over the last two decades the growth of youth sports has reflected the popularity of professional sports in our society. Sporting events and news are available to the public twenty-four hours a day on television and radio sports are an enormous industry. The outstanding popularity of the sports industry has profoundly affected youth sports organizations. An estimated twenty-five million children age six through eighteen participate in at least one school or community based athletic program. These numbers increase exponentially as the age of boys and girls entering sports keeps falling. In order to supervise, teach and manage these athletes about .5 million coaches spend an average of eighty hours a season with them. The majority of these coaches volunteer for programs organized by the community, religious organizations, and recreational facilities. Without a national agency to coordinate sports programs, there exists great variation in the manner in which sponsoring agencies organize their teams, thus leaving plenty of opportunity for too much parental and coach control. Agencies have quickly moved American youth from unstructured play to highly organized competition. This infrastructure (or over structure) of organized youth sports is the backbone for criticism and praise by professional athletes, physicians, and psychologists.

There are many that feel organized sports can be very beneficial. Lyle Micheli, associate professor at Harvard Medical School, strongly supports organized sports for youth. He claims that sports aid in the development of social and interpersonal skills, health fitness and psychological well-being. The more evident benefits involve individual skill development, greater physical fitness, and higher self esteem. Other benefits include development of group cooperation teamwork and friendship-making skills. Many feel that self-esteem and self-image can be greatly improved through sports. Psychologists around the country stress a need for an active life style to develop healthy self-images. Eric Margenau, a psychologist and author, feels that early and frequent exposure to sports is the key to personal growth. Sports introduce children to healthy competition. A child's failure in competition helps them learn to win gracefully and lose with honor. It teaches youngsters that through perseverance and determination they can win next time. These lessons that children learn will stay with them throughout their lifetime.

Some skeptics criticize the very premise of competition is hazardous to a child's psychological and emotional well-being. The critics of sports emphasize the detrimental affects of competition and the negative influence of untrained coaches and pushy parents. There are a huge number of children playing sports, but due to burnout, stress, psychological trauma, and lowered self-esteem as many as seventy-three percent quit sports by the age of thirteen. Rick Wolff, a former professional baseball player and coach, claims there are several factors contributing to this phenomenon such as parents and coaches putting excessive pressure on children, specialization in one sport, over competitiveness, anxiety and loss of interest. This lack of interest may stem from the fact that they are cut from a team, injured, or receive little playing time. Another reason for high dropout rates is the structure of the programs. The sports programs are set up by adults, run by adults, and maintained by adults with a precise date and time. Spontaneous play and creativity are taken out of the equation. Coaches are choosing who plays and who doesn't in an effort to win. A study found that 0% of all children would rather be on a losing team if they got to play. Alfie Kohn, author of "No Contest", claims that competition is the downfall of sports. It is the very core of sports to produce a winner and a loser. Competition forces children to rely on external sources to feel good about themselves. It also causes youth to view others as obstacles to their personal success. Winners' gloat and losers sulk, or quit. The majority will end up losers and this fosters self-doubt, thus a decrease in esteem. Those that do win often rely on competing to define their self worth .It is stressed that children love to compete, but research tells a different story. Dr Orlick found that an astounding 5% of children preferred to participate in noncompetitive activities than structured competition. Dr. Orlick is a huge advocate of noncompetitive play. He wants the stress to be on group cooperation striving toward a common goal. An example of this is musical chairs. However, the game is structured so that children try to get all players on the fewest amount of chairs. Children are still learning skills and strategies, but there are no losers-only winners.

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