Saratoga

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Washington, George (17-17), first president of the United States (178-177) and one of the most important leaders in United States history. His role in gaining independence for the American colonies and later in unifying them under the new U.S. federal government cannot be overestimated. Laboring against great difficulties, he created the Continental Army, which fought and won the American Revolution (1775-178), out of what was little more than an armed mob. After an eight-year struggle, his design for victory brought final defeat to the British at Yorktown, Virginia, and forced Great Britain to grant independence to its overseas possession. With victory won, Washington was the most revered man in the United States. A lesser person might have used this power to establish a military dictatorship or to become king. Washington sternly suppressed all such attempts on his behalf by his officers and continued to obey the weak and divided Continental Congress. However, he never ceased to work for the union of the states under a strong central government. He was a leading influence in persuading the states to participate in the Constitutional Convention, over which he presided, and he used his immense prestige to help gain ratification of its product, the Constitution of the United States. Although worn out by years of service to his country, Washington reluctantly accepted the presidency of the United States. Probably no other man could have succeeded in welding the states into a lasting union. Washington fully understood the significance of his presidency. "I walk on untrodden ground," he said. "There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn in precedent." During eight years in office, Washington laid down the guidelines for future presidents. Washington lived only two years after turning over the presidency to his successor, John Adams. The famous tribute by General Henry Lee, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," accurately reflected the emotions that Washington's death aroused. Later generations have crowned this tribute with the simple title "Father of His Country."

Revere, Paul (175-1818), American silversmith, engraver, and patriot, whose efforts as a courier for the revolutionary cause made him a folk hero. The son of a silversmith, he was born in Boston, on January 1, 175. While still a young man he acquired a reputation as a designer and maker of elegant silverware; his finely wrought tankards, bowls, and pitchers were much prized, and his tea sets served the Boston aristocracy for a century (only one is known to have survived complete). Revere also turned his manual dexterity to the making of artificial teeth, surgical instruments, and engraved printing plates. His most famous engraving, depicting the 1770 Boston Massacre, put him in the forefront of anti-British propagandists. With other patriots, he took part in the Boston Tea Party in 177. When the fighting began, he carried messages for the revolutionaries of the area. The historic midnight ride of April 18, 1775, was made by Revere and two others from Boston to Concord to warn of the approach of British troops. Reveres role is exaggerated in Henry Wadsworth Longfellows ballad "Paul Reveres Ride"; actually, British scouts detained him en route, but one of the others got through to the patriots in time. Revere also engraved printing plates and printed money for the Massachusetts Congress and designed the first official seal for the united colonies as well as the seal still used by Massachusetts. He established a gunpowder mill at Canton, Massachusetts, and served as a major of militia in Boston after the British withdrew (1776). After the war Revere operated a brass foundry and manufactured sheet copper at Canton, besides continuing his successful trade as a silversmith. He died May 10, 1818, in Boston.

Franklin, Benjamin (1706-170), American printer, author, diplomat, philosopher, and scientist, whose many contributions to the cause of the American Revolution (1775-178), and the newly formed federal government that followed, rank him among the country's greatest statesmen. In 1775 Franklin traveled to Canada, suffering great hardship along the way, in a vain effort to enlist the cooperation and support of Canada in the Revolution. Upon his return, he became one of the committee of five chosen to draft the Declaration of Independence. He was also one of the signers of that historic document, addressing the assembly with the characteristic statement "We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately." In September of the same year, he was chosen, with two other Americans, Arthur Lee and Silas Deane, to seek economic assistance in France. His scientific reputation, his integrity of character, and his wit and gracious manner made him extremely popular in French political, literary, and social circles, and his wisdom and ingenuity secured for the U.S. aid and concessions that perhaps no other man could have obtained. Against the vigorous opposition of the French minister of finance, Jacques Necker, and despite the jealous antagonism of his coldly formal American colleagues, he managed to obtain liberal grants and loans from Louis XVI of France. Franklin encouraged and materially assisted American privateers operating against the British navy, especially John Paul Jones. On February 6, 1778, Franklin negotiated the treaty of commerce and defensive alliance with France that represented, in effect, the turning point of the American Revolution. Seven months later, he was appointed by Congress as the first minister plenipotentiary from the U.S. to France. In 1781 Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay were appointed to conclude a treaty of peace with Great Britain. The final treaty was signed at Versailles on September , 178 (see Paris, Treaty of). During the remainder of his stay in France, Franklin was accorded honorary distinctions commensurate with his notable and diversified accomplishments. His scientific standing won him an appointment from the French king as one of the commissioners investigating the Austrian physician Franz Anton Mesmer and the phenomenon of animal magnetism. As a dignitary of one of the most distinguished Freemason lodges in France, Franklin had the opportunity of meeting and speaking with a number of philosophers and leading figures of the French Revolution (178-17), upon whose political thinking he exerted a profound influence. Although he favored a liberalization of the French government, he opposed change through violent revolution.

Paine, Thomas (177-180), Anglo-American political philosopher, whose writings had great influence during two upheavals in the 18th century the American Revolution (1775-178) and the French Revolution (178-17). In London Paine met and befriended Benjamin Franklin, who was serving as a representative of the American colonies in Great Britain. On Franklin's advice, and equipped with letters of introduction from him, Paine immigrated to Philadelphia in 1774. He became an editor on the Pennsylvania Magazine and also anonymously published writings, including poetry. One of his publications was the article "African Slavery in America," in which he condemned the practice of slavery. Paine published his most famous work, the 50-page pamphlet, Common Sense, on January 10, 1776. In a dramatic, rhetorical style, the document asserted that the American colonies received no advantage from Great Britain, which was exploiting them, and that every consideration of common sense called for the colonies to become independent and establish a republican government of their own. The document went on to criticize the monarchy as an institution. Published anonymously, the pamphlet sold more than 500,000 copies and helped encourage, with comments such as "The birthday of a new world is at hand," the issuance of the Declaration of Independence six months later. Paine served briefly in the army under General Nathanael Greene. Paine wrote a series of pamphlets between 1776 and 178 entitled The American Crisis. His words inspired those who battled in the revolution, and included the now famous first line "These are the times that try men's souls."George Washington ordered the pamphlets read to his troops in hope that they would be inspired to endure. In 1777 the Second Continental Congress appointed Paine secretary of the Committee of Foreign Affairs. After losing the post during a political dispute early in 177, he remained unemployed until November, when he became clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature. His concern for the difficult lives of American troops led him to establish a fund to support needy soldiers, despite his own lack of income. Paine himself had to apply to Congress for financial help, but his plea was buried by his opponents there. However, he was helped by Pennsylvania and New York; New York gave him a farm in New Rochelle, New York.

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Adams, Samuel (17-180), American patriot, one of the leaders of resistance to British policy in Massachusetts before the American Revolution. Adams was born in Boston on September 7, 17, and educated at Harvard College (now Harvard University). After leaving college in 1740, he was successively a law student, a clerk in a countinghouse, and a merchant. His business failed, and he later became a partner with his father in a brewery. This enterprise also failed after his father died. Meanwhile, he had been an active participant in Boston political circles. In 1756 he was elected tax collector of Boston, a position he held for eight years. His outspoken opposition to strict enforcement of the Sugar and Molasses Act in 1764 brought him into prominence in colonial politics. In 1765, in the course of the controversy aroused by the Stamp Act, he drafted the instructions to the Boston representatives in the General Court, the legislative body of Massachusetts. He was elected to the lower house of the General Court in the same year. The radical majority in the lower house elected him clerk in 1766, and while serving in this position, which he held until 1774, he gradually assumed leadership of the movement in Massachusetts that advocated independence from Great Britain. As such he was a consistent and bitter opponent of Thomas Hutchinson, an aristocratic political leader, who served as the lieutenant governor of the colony from 1758 to 1771 and as royal governor from 1771 to 1774.

Adams decisively influenced every important aspect of the prerevolutionary struggle against British rule. In the realm of practical politics, he promoted the formation of the Boston chapter of the Sons of Liberty and sponsored the Committee of Correspondence of Boston. He led the fight against the Townshend Acts, headed the demonstrations that led to the Boston Massacre, directed the Boston Tea Party, and figured significantly in other outstanding events of the period. He rapidly acquired an intercolonial reputation both through these activities and as a literary agitator and revolutionary ideologist. Many of his writings, chiefly political pamphlets, were widely circulated and read. A proponent of the natural rights of man, he was in the vanguard of those Americans who challenged the authority of the British Parliament and championed rebellion. Stylistically, his writings are lucid, forceful, and epigrammatic. Adamss contributions to the Boston Gazette, a newspaper, constituted a voluminous phase of his agitational work. Frequently written under pseudonyms, his newspaper articles inveighed against reconciliation with Great Britain; they won imany converts for the radical cause and generally deepened the mood for revolutionary action. In June 1774, following the passage of the Boston Port Act, Adams climaxed his activities against that and similarly oppressive measures by securing the approval by the Massachusetts General Court of a resolution to send representatives to the First Continental Congress. Elected a delegate to the congress, he soon became the leader of the radical faction that demanded strong measures against Great Britain. Before adjourning, the Congress called for a boycott of British goods and recommended the use of force in resisting taxes that had been imposed by the government in London. Adams was a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, which convened at Philadelphia in May 1775, and he subsequently signed the Declaration of Independence. He remained a member of the Continental Congress until its dissolution (1781), but he was frequently at odds with his colleagues on matters of national policy. Because his strenuous opposition to a strong national government impeded mobilization of the nation for a speedy victory over Great Britain, his popularity and effectiveness as a leader gradually waned. In 177, Adams was a member of the committee that drafted the Massachusetts State constitution, and he was instrumental also in securing the ratification by Massachusetts of the U.S. Constitution in 1788. He was lieutenant governor of Massachusetts from 178 to 17 and governor from 174 to 177. He died in Boston on October , 180.

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