Hunting, Consumerism and Natural Balance

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Hunting big game is a brutal and bloody business! That is, what many naturalists, hikers and so called animal rights activists claim. I believe their opinion is largely based on some horrific hunting stories they have heard and not on personal experience. A lot of people feel that killing an animal is one of the worst things one can do, and that hunters hunt for the sake of killing and shooting at anything that moves. I realize that some hunters do a poor job and show the wrong attitude toward hunting. They disobey hunting rules and regulations, such as bag limits or no alcohol while handling a firearm, and they do not practice enough with their gear. Results of this are missed shots, or what is worse, wounded animals. Unfortunately, it is those few hunters that give big game hunting a bad reputation. There are those of us who take hunting very seriously, and we make it our goal to pursue big game the right way. Choosing the right weapon and practicing consistently ensures that hunting is ethical and serves nature.

For instance, selecting the right weapon is an important step toward being a good hunter. Among the most popular hunting weapons are compound bows, handguns, and rifles. Each of those weapons has advantages and disadvantages. The compound bow is a potent hunting weapon that can, in the hands of an experienced shooter, be very effective over short ranges of up to 50 yards. However, there is one main with cross bows. Hunters have to be very close to the animal they intend to take, which limits the range of terrain that can be hunted. For instance, it would be difficult to hunt antelope in Nevada, where typical shot ranges are beyond 100 yards. Also, a bow is not powerful enough to deliver an instant kill unless the head or heart is hit. This is very difficult to do, for targets like head or heart are small. The heart, for instance, lies between the front legs of most game animals and is therefore almost impossible to reach with an arrow. "In bow hunting, it is critical that you only shoot when the animal is standing either broadside or quartering slightly away from you" (Shot ). Ethical hunters will not attempt such a shot.

On the other hand, handguns in an appropriate center fire caliber, such as caliber .44 or larger, deliver the necessary knockdown power to achieve an instantaneous kill. Yet, their main disadvantage is a limited range of about 100 yards. A solid rest for the weapon is also needed, but it is not always present. This makes placing shots over larger distances very difficult. Wounded animals are usually the result of shots taken by hunters that overestimate their shooting ability or the power of their handgun.

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I believe that a center fire rifle, compared to bow or handgun, is a superior weapon. It is the most powerful yet versatile weapon, and it is my choice for hunting. A rifle offers precision superior knockdown power over very long ranges. "The centerfire rifle is the most accurate and versatile firearm a big game hunter can own" (Rifle 14). I know from my experience that the right combination of rifle, caliber and scope can easily deliver an instant kill over a distance of 00 yards. Even 00-yard shots are possible with a good rest for the rifle. The disadvantage of rifles is their weight. Although rifles are usually several times the weight of the other weapons mentioned, their superior technical advantages make up for it.

In addition to a powerful weapon, the next important step is practice. Knowing the capability of my gear and myself is a must. I owe it to the animal to be the best shot I can be. I do not want the animal to suffer, and I am also not interested in spending hours looking for wounded game. Therefore, I spend quite some time and money at the shooting range to make sure I do not miss a shot.

I use the same gear and ammunition for hunting as for practice. Every rifle is made to shoot a specific caliber. However, there is a difference in cartridge performance based on weight of bullet and manufacturer. For example, a Remington rifle chambered in .0-06 caliber may shoot best (most accurate) with a 165-grain load, manufactured by Federal (name brand ammunition manufacturer). This means the only way to really know how a specific caliber-gun combination will perform during the hunt is to shoot the very caliber-gun combination during practice. Using hunting ammunition for target practice, however, is much more expensive because hunting ammunition costs about four times more than cheap target ammunition in the same caliber. I also practice different shooting positions like prone, kneeling and free standing because any of those can be required during a future hunt. Besides that, I practice year around and not just before the start of a hunting season, so I know that my gear as well as myself are up to the task. Constant practice also gives me confidence and the right skill level for the moment I am ready to pull the trigger.

In addition to the technical aspects of it, hunting is also ecological. Hunting has become an important resource when it comes to controlling numbers of game animals in their habitat. Unfortunately, mistakes have been made in the past. Some of which wildlife management still has to deal with. For example, during the past century, many predators were brought to the brink of extinction because they were viewed upon as varmints. For instants, this has allowed deer populations in some areas to explode. Every ecosystem or habitat has a population limit per species. That means that a certain habitat is capable of supporting only a certain number of animals with food, water and shelter. If this limit is exceeded, game does not find enough resources, and the resources that are present are depleted quickly, jeopardizing the survival of other species. A lack of food will lead to populations that are comprised of weaker individuals. Many animals in this habitat will die of starvation or disease. The Department of Fish and Game in conjunction with wildlife biologists researches the numbers of animals per species that are ecologically balanced for the zones they are living in. If a zone has more animals per habitat then it is capable of supporting, game tags are issued to reduce the surplus of animals. The number of game tags dictates the number of game animals per species that can be taken from the appropriate zones. Hunting creates and helps maintain a healthy game population and a healthy game population leads to a healthy habitat.

Also, funding for habitat improvements are a direct result of hunting. Upkeep and maintenance for national or state parks as well as habitat restoration is enormously expensive. Not only does hunting help keep game animal populations healthy, it also supports the building and reconstructing of new habitats at large. Annual tax revenues from the sale of ammunition and firearms alone have totaled to nearly $00 million. (Hunters). Most people dont think about this when they take their families to Yosemite or Yellowstone Park, nor do they consider the funding source when they watch documentations about new habitat construction on the Discovery Channel. Hunting and fishing contributes massively to the construction and upkeep of outdoor recreation that is enjoyed by millions of Americans and visitors to the US. "Proceeds from the Federal Duck Stamp, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters, have purchased more than five million acres of habitat for the refuge system lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species…" (Hunters).

Unfortunately, this information doesn't seem to be very wide spread, and many people are still opposed to hunting and don't see its many benefits.

Nevertheless, people are often shocked when they learn that I hunt and kill game animals. I often hear the question "Why don't you go buy your meat at the grocery store?". This question is worth examining in more detail because whomever asks that question seems to think that the meat from the supermarket grows right there in the little plastic trays that it is offered in. Surely, it is much easier and guilt free to buy an anonymous piece of meat from the supermarket. It conveniently allows consumers to ignore the process by which this piece of meat came to be available. It's easy not to think about the fact that the piece of chicken, for example, was most likely "produced" in a small cage together with hundreds or thousands of it's peers. Its beak was clipped so it couldn't injure other chickens. "Many breeding broilers are debeaked, to minimize damage from aggression, and this may cause life-long pain" (Broiler). The chicken's wings were clipped because it would never fly anyway. It was kept in a dimly lid hall to keep its stress level in a range where it wouldn't freak out because of its horrific living condition. The chicken was fed animal by-products, such as ground and processed animal waste from slaughterhouses, mixed with grain so the extra protein would make it grow faster. It got fed antibiotics in order not to get sick in its unhealthy environment. The chicken got fed or injected growths hormones so it would fatten up sooner than natural and be profitable for the producer. When killing time came, it was hung from a hook on a conveyor belt that led to a saw that cut of its head. I don't buy my meat at the grocery store because the "modern" ways of animal production tortures animals to keep prices down and profits up.

Yet, another statement people often use is "hunting is not fair." Hunting is not supposed to be fair. I believe it is fair in a sense that I have a hard time finding the animal in its natural habitat because its senses and knowledge of its environment are much more keen than mine. If I do manage to find the animal, I will try to take it. Also, game and hunter are not equal, and hunting is not a sport where hunter and pray are on the same team. Besides, the way hunting used to be done, using spears and other crude hunting instruments like clubs and rocks, was not fair let alone humane. Animals got chased over cliffs, trapped in holes, stoned to death or poisoned. In the commercial industry animals suffer even more inhumane deaths. Modern hunting with the use of superior hunting technologies is as fair as it gets. For example, the query does not know that I am around because if it did, it would run away. It is important to me not to stress the animal, nor do I inflict pain or suffering. I wait with the shot until everything is right. The distance, position, and aim must be perfect before pulling the trigger. I never shoot at running game because its too difficult to place a good shot. I have passed up shots because distance, aim or the position of the animal was not right.

In conclusion, I have a deep respect for nature. Buying firearms, ammunition and game tags supports the upkeep and creation of parks and animal refuges in a major way. When I hunt, I take the place of the missing predator and keep habitats in balance by taking surplus game. I have chosen the most efficient weapon, and I take all necessary precautions to insure a quick and humane death for the animal. I posses the skills needed to kill and not wound because I practice with my preferred hunting gear, and I like providing meat for my family that is organic. The animals I take had a chance to grow up in their natural habitat and enjoy a natural life until the moment I pulled the trigger. I hope that someday, people will come to understand how the modern meat process works. Only then will they understand that a cruel and inhumane industry is supported with every piece of meat purchased. I believe this understanding would alter most people's opinion regarding hunting, and they would no longer regard hunting as being cruel and unethical.

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Heart of Darkness theme analysis

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" HEART OF DARKNESS "

By JOSEPH CONRAD

Written as the memory of a one mans journey, Conrad's "HEART OF DARKNESS" is a novel that is like a journey through ones nightmare. There are so many interesting but minor characters throughout the pages of the book, and so many possible themes that it is difficult to possibly name all of them. Some of the themes of the novel include light & darkness, racism, imperialism and superiority.

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In Conrad's haunting tale, Marlow a seaman and wanderer, retells his physical and psychological journey in search of the mysterious Kurtz. Travelling to the heart of the African continent, he discovers how Kurtz has gained his position of power and influence over the local people. Marlow's struggle to understand what has happened involves him in a major questioning of not only his own nature but the nature and values of his society.

The story of Kurtz is told by Marlow, who speaks for the majority of the novel. He is a versatile character, who can relate to different kinds of people with more ease rather than other characters in the story. He is a long time seamen, a rootless wanderer and a frequent storyteller, most of the story being idea rather than fact. He was the captain of a small steamer that travelled up the Congo River to retrieve the mysterious Kurtz from inside there. When Marlow arrives, he is shocked and disgusted by the sight of wasted human lives and ruined supplies. His encounter with Kurtz shakes him for the rest of his life. Marlow suffers horribly. He is "contaminated" by his experiences and memories and is somewhat destined, to repeat his story to all that will listen. Marlow is what Kurtz might have been.

Kurtz was a trade agent sent to Africa by the Company and was in charge of the most productive ivory station in the Congo. Like Marlow, Kurtz started out with the noble goal of bringing civilization and progress to the natives. He was favoured greatly in the Company and his virtue was praised, to the disappointment of his jealous colleagues. But as soon as he arrived to a place where "civilization" was not practised, the wilderness captured him and it made his inner savageness emerge. He began to act as a god to the local natives. Kurtz was also a thief, murder, raider and a persecutor. He rotted away, mentally and physically and died aware of the horror of his life. Marlow describers Kurtz as a "hollow man," a man without basic integrity or any sense of social responsibility. Kurtz is what Marlow might have become.

In "HEART OF DARKNESS", there is a real contrast between what is light and what is dark. These contrasts work within the reality of what is considered civilized and uncivilized, the light representing civilization or the civilized side of the world and dark, the uncivilized or the savage side of the world. Throughout the book, there are many references to these two contrasts. In the novel, black and white have the usual representations of evil and good.

The setting plays a very crucial role in this novel. From the very start, Marlow creates a feeling of darkness in regards to the past and the present. The story is told about "one evening." This gives the idea to the reader of darkness being evil.

Further along in the novel there are many more examples of contrast between light and dark and excellent examples of civilized and uncivilized and the colours used to represent them. Marlow stumbles across a work camp. The conditions of the "black shapes" is one of great sadness. He describes them as people who have withdrawn from the work camps in order to die. He says they are "half affected within the dim light." This reference continues to support the idea of light being good and dark being evil. The workers go into the light to die from the dark caves. Marlow calls these people "black shadows of disease and starvation." This quote reinforces the idea that blacks and the dark images they project are uncivilised and nothing to be wishing for.

Throughout the rest of the novel there are a lot of situations where blacks-the uncivilised savages-contrast with the whites-the civilized Europeans. The African land is described as "lurked with death and hidden evil, to the profound darkness of the heart." The statement once again reinforces the idea of dark being evil. Marlow overhears during a conversation on the boat by two men who talk about the dark images of death. This part also reflects the idea of civilized and uncivilized people. The darkness being referred to is the natives and their home, the Congo.

When Marlow finally reaches the camp where Kurtz is located, he finds that it is not civilized. Marlow encounters "black heads" on Kurtz's fence. This again represents the idea of savagery with the colour black. He also describes the savagery of the black natives when describing how they protect the white ivory. He says "they are armed to kill", but it must be realised that the ivory they were protecting was for the whites.

The main contrast between light and dark occurs with the death of Kurtz on the boat after he is saved and being brought back to civilization. "The brown current that ran swiftly out of the heart of darkness…"

Racism plays a big role in the "HEART OF DARKNESS". The novel itself portrays Conrad's racist views towards the black society. From the beginning of the novel, the river Congo is compared to the river Thames in the book because Marlow is telling the story while they are sitting at the bottom of the Thames, yet his story takes place on the Congo. The Thames is portrayed as a peaceful, tranquil river while the Congo, has quite a different atmosphere. Marlow says that the Congo is one of the dark places of the earth and this can be perceived as racist in regards to the dark people who live about it.

Throughout the novel, Marlow makes racist remarks about the black natives which tend to be very disturbing. For example "..the thought of their humanity-like yours…Ugly" stated by Marlow. This remark is typical of a racist. The thought of the black mans humanity being compared to Marlow's was just plain ugly from Conrad's perspective. Throughout the novel, the black societies are dubbed "natives," "slaves," "savages," "uncivilised," etc. As an outcome of being called a "slave" the audience can see the society of "darkness" doing the work for the civilized beings.

Another important factor of discrimination is that of women. Of all the jobs and high status mentioned in the novel not one of the individuals was female. Kurtz mysterious mistress was also described as savage, "…she was savage and wild-eyed…" One can conclude from this example that women were either "civilized" unnecessary beings or "uncivilized" savage creatures. Women were not to have any social or political status.

Imperialism is a central underlying theme throughout this novel. The images from the Thames River lend support to the argument that this novel is about imperialism at a basic level. Most importantly, "HEART OF DARKNESS" exposes imperialisms exploitation of foreign lands and people, leaving the imperialist agent themselves, empty and disturbed.

A metaphor that can be used for "HEART OF DARKNESS" is that imperialists were trying to conquer the savage and civilise him. "HEART OF DARKNESS" is a powerful example of the evils of imperialism. They believed that because the natives were black and uncivilized, they were lesser people. As Marlow moved further into the continent, he felt time moved backwards as "civilization" obtained by the imperialists was becoming less evident.

When Marlow reached the Congo, law continues to contribute to the imperialist surroundings in which he finds himself. The laws function at this point seems largely to assist imperialist control. Imperialists do more than merely use the law. They seize the very right to define the law. Even at the end of the tale, when Marlow returns to Europe, imperialism continues to play a role. No post-Congo cranial measurements are taken. But the European society and the culture of the imperialist nations disgust Marlow. I found myself back in the sepulchral city, he says, resenting the sight of people hurrying through the streets to filch a little money from each other, to devour their infamous cookery, to gulp their unwholesome beer, to dream their insignificant and silly dreams.

Kurtz is a dark shadow of imperialism. Kurtz claimed that he was doing noble deeds in civilizing the natives but the "unsound" methods that Kurtz uses are of the same centre of that which drive imperialists. That is the "horror" that Kurtz admits to before his death. He found that the savages were just like the modern world and that the imperialists cover it up with technology and civilization. Kurtz's terminal illness represents the eventual death of imperialism due to its inability to adapt and respect the culture and natives of the invaded country.

The manager is also a derivative of the negative effects of imperialism. His good health symbolizes the everlastingness of Europeans who invaded Africa and their ability to continually come to Africa and rape it of its natural resources.

Along with imperialism, came the forced ideals of a race who thought themselves more superior then the natives who roamed the land previously. This is clear in the "HEART OF DARKNESS" where we see the whites completely dominate the blacks.

The "black" slaves were forced to work till they were physically exhausted. The blacks were not given any personal individuality of uniqueness unless they were somewhat alike to the whites. Even then they were given no chance of humanity to their personalities. Marlow states, "And between the whiles I had to look after the savage who was a fireman. He was an improved specimen; he could fire up a vertical boiler. He was there below me, and upon my word, to look at him was as edifying as seeing a dog in a parody of breeches and a feather hat, walking on his hind legs." Even though, the natives took on some white characteristics, they were still seen as different. In the above statement, the fireman is seen as a joke. Not as a man, but as a "dog in breeches". No matter how educated or similar in appearance the blacks became, they were still seen as beneath the whites.

There are different contemporary viewpoints in regards to the issue about superiority. Jules Harmand commented in 110,

"It is necessary, then to accept as a principle and point of departure the fact that there is a hierarchy of races and civilizations, and that we belong to the superior race and civilization, still recognising that, while superiority confers rights, it imposes strict obligations in return. The basic legitimization of conquest over native peoples is the conviction of our superiority, not merely our mechanical, economic, and military superiority, but our moral superiority. Our dignity rests on that quality, and it underlies our right to direct the rest of humanity. Material power is nothing but a means to an end."

That statement made by Mr Harmand sums up the reasons why the European whites held their "we are the best" beliefs. They clearly thought it was god and their honourable superiority that made them the better race. It seems, however, that it was their extreme greed that made them the superior race. There was not much that they would not do to acquire riches, or in the case of the "HEART OF DARKNESS," ivory.

The "HEART OF DARKNESS" is a novel that explores the themes of light & darkness, racism, imperialism and superiority. It is the rules and codes bestowed upon us that prevent our present "civilized" society unleashing savage tendencies.

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Cult of ethnicity

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THE CULT OF ETHNICITY

Many years ago immigrants in the United States were eager to accept the opportunity to start over, to begin anew to create their own future. Most of our recent immigrants are still eager to accept that opportunity. However, each new influx of immigration to the United States also triggers new social and political tensions that threaten to split apart many of these new ethnic groups from the descendants our earlier immigrants. At the root of these tensions lies the philosophical question of what it means to be an American, of what the so-called American dream truly means. In his "Cult of Ethnicity," Arthur Schlesinger calls his readers' attention to the current racial and cultural threats brought on by current ethnic demands "pressed too far." At the same time he offers hope that that these threats can be handled wisely and fairly (Schlesinger, 00).

Is it possible that the geographic location of America has helped to shield it from the growing problem of racial and ethnic strife so abundant in the rest of the world? Many immigrants came to this country for a better life, one free from persecution surrounding their religious beliefs. They came to America to begin new lives, to practice whatever religion and beliefs they chose. However, the tensions have been increasing between American descendants of earlier immigrants and those recently arrived as fugitives from the Near East and those both legal and illegal from South and from Central America. Adding to those tensions are the demands of many African Americans who are no longer content to savor recently won Civil Rights. Nor are we speaking of a small number of immigrants. For example, the Hispanic population has been growing so fast that many of their leaders have been pushing strongly for bilingual accommodations in the form of bilingual classes and bilingual signs and labels.

The small town of El Cenizo, 7,800 people, and just south of Laredo, Texas, become the center of a cultural divide when it became the only town in the United States to make Spanish its official language. This has stirred a serious controversy from the day Spanish was adopted as the official language. Is this an example of ethnicity "pressed too far"? Linda Evans, a spokesperson for then Governor George Bush said; "as a general rule, Governor Bush believes that government business in America should be conducted in English," There are arguments from others as well, like Jim Boulet the Executive Director of English First and a leader of an advocacy group that wants to make English the Nation's official language. Boulet has been quoted as saying that this should be viewed as an early warning sign "Language divisions rather quickly lead to other divisions" (Estrada, 1). Should those who choose to become citizens of the United States be expected to adopt every American facet of American culture or should they be allowed to substitute some facets of American culture as did the citizens of the town of El Cenizo?

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How can a country based upon the acceptance and the tolerance of others be experiencing a cultural backlash based upon too many ethnic groups wanting to hold fast to their beliefs? Granted that every country has its own culture, but what should our American culture be? Who should decide what that culture ought to be? Schlesinger points to the public school system as a tool to develop the American culture. However, if the growing minority groups choose separation over assimilation, such as in the case in El Cenizo, should that town be allowed to make a free choice? Merely associating with a particular ethnic group is not going to cause alienation from society as a whole; however, people who decide not to associate with those of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds will do themselves more harm than good by depriving themselves of some cultural opportunities.

If a town in Texas adopts a new language to best suit the needs of the citizens, what negative effect ought this to have on surrounding communities? What is this telling the next generation?

Diversity and acceptance are some of the great things about America that drew many people from many countries around the world. But as more people hold on to their culture and are less willing to accept that of others, they are drawing a line in the sand that can be crossed only once.

References

Estrada, R. (1, August 16). Texas Town Adopts Spanish as Official Language [Electronic version]. The Dallas Morning News, p. E08.

Schlesinger, A. (00). The Cult of Ethnicity. In The Mcraw-Hill Reader (Vol. 8th Edition, pp. 47-4). New York Mc Graw-Hill.

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A Class Sax

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A Class Sax

In the woodwind family of instruments, there is a very unique set of instruments; the saxophones. There are actually six different saxophones in this family soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, contrabass, and bass saxophone. The saxophone was invented in the late 18th century when composers wanted to fill out their orchestras with a sound that wasnt quite like a brass instrument, and not exactly a woodwind. Thus, the uniquely sounding saxophone was created. I have had the experience of playing the alto, tenor and baritone saxophones. These three saxophones can be classified by using key signature, size, and tone.

The alto saxophone is used mainly for the melodies of tunes with fast tempos. The alto is in the key of E-Flat, meaning that the alto plays a standard B-flat scale starting on the note of G. The altos range allows it to play the melodies with instruments like the trumpets and clarinets. The size of the alto is not as small as the soprano, but not as big as the tenor sax. The altos tone is higher pitched to play like a trumpet with the capability to play like a clarinet.

Likewise, the tenor saxophone can be compared to a few instruments, such as, the trombone and the French horn. The tenor saxophone is in the key of B-flat. The tenor usually has the harmony parts in a composition, but sometimes plays melody when the piece calls for more of a middle range of sound. The tenor plays best in the harmony parts because of its ability to play low and middle range notes very well. Tenor saxophones are usually paired with the French horn because it has the same type of sound, but has a unique woodwind sound at the same time.

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Simmons

The size of the tenor is a little larger than an alto, but not as big of the baritone, which is the next biggest saxophone in this family.

Unlike the alto or tenor, the baritone saxophone has a deep bass sound. Baritone saxophones normally have an accompanying part to the tuba or the euphonium (baritone). Like the alto, the baritone saxophone is in the key of E-flat, but is an entire octave lower. Meaning, a high G on a baritone saxophone would be a middle G on an alto. The baritone saxophone is used in jazz music a lot because of its unique cross over sound. The size of a baritone sax is huge compared to a soprano or alto.

The saxophone is an excellent addition to any orchestra. The different sounds and ranges of the many saxophones add depth and a wide range to the overall sound of an orchestra. The different tones and sizes of saxophones help the saxophone stand out from any other instrument. The different saxophones can be classified by using key signature, size, and tone. My experience of playing these saxophones has helped me understand the differences, and I hope that I have helped you to understand these as well.

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Process and Methodology of Modern Philosophy

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Part I Positivist Philosopher, or Sophist?

Thanks to the Processes which we set at work in them centuries ago, they find it all but impossible to believe in the unfamiliar while the familiar is right before their eyes. Keep pressing home on him the ordinariness of things. Above all, do not attempt to use science (I mean, the real sciences) as a defence against Christianity. They will positively make him think about realities he cant touch or see. There have been sad cases amoung the Physicists. If he must dabble in science, keep him on economics and sociology; dont let him get away from that invaluable "real life." But best of all is to let him read no science but to give him a grand general idea that he knows it all and that everything he happens to have picked up in casual talk and reading is "the result of modern investigation." Do remember you are there to fuddle him. From the way some of you young fiends talk, anyone would suppose it was our job to teach!

- C.S. Lewis

In The Screwtape Letters, C. S. Lewis masterfully crafts a correspondence from an Undersecretary for the Devil Screwtape to his nephew, a junior devil Woodworm that details the art of Temptation and the science of deception. Screwtape's first letter asserts that the underlying principle of temptation is to disregard the distinction between right and wrong or True and False but rather to persuade humans to think in terms of validity and soundness of arguments. Having blurred the lines between the Truth and the False, the devil can now persuade the absent-minded human to concentrate on "real issues" such as politics, economics, and current events; and consequently, disregard such disciplines as Philosophy, Theology, and Mathematics as merely theoretical concepts. Furthermore, man now looses perspective on reality and will ultimately digress from the universal reality to a personal reality where "man is the measure of all things." (Protagorus)

Professional writers help on Process and Methodology of Modern Philosophy essays

Although Lewis wrote the letters with fictionist characters, the thoughts on deception and temptation are very much real not only in society but academia as well. Since the time of the Enlightenment or the "Age of Reason" as historians so foolishly call it, the great thinkers have been concerned about one thing, i.e. the practical. Modern thought has abandoned the natural concepts of Reality, Knowledge, and Being with relativism and subjectivism and emerged with new philosophies such as John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism, Kant's idealism, William James' pragmatics, Nietzsche's nihilism, and Auguste Comte's positivism. These five theories are apart of a larger movement known as Modernism, which takes egregious misinterpretations of Ancient and Medieval Philosophers to their extremes. Although Comte's role is often over looked in Modernism, his impact has divided academia into two pieces, the sciences and the arts, and places sociology as the glue, which holds them all together. His ultimate goal is disprove Philosophy as Knowledge and claims it only the second process of making something Knowledge.

Auguste Comte was a radical French thinker who lived in the French Revolution and later served as an undersecretary to Cluade Henri Saint-Simon, a Utopian who often criticized the French King and Catholic Church as "parasites to society." In 18, they wrote Plan of the Scientific Operations Necessary for the Reorganization of Society that coined the term "social physics" and established three stages of Knowledge. Comte would later replace "social physics" with sociology; however, "social physics" strived to discover the natural laws of human behaviour and progress as Physics strives to discover the laws of motion and change in the physical world. Comte would build on this principle independently and claim a hierarchy of the sciences.

Part II Comtes Epistemology

According to Comte and Sain-Simon, every science, that is, every branch of knowledge must pass through three stages that are the Theological stage, the Metaphysical Stage, and the Positivist Stage. Comte's theory was that "the study of development of human intelligence, in all di- rections and through all times, the discovery arises of a fundamental law, to which it is necessarily subject, and which had a solid foundation in proof, both in the facts of our organization and our historical orga-

nization." (Auguste Comte, Positive Philosophy 5) This is to say that observing the history of man's thought will reveal how man achieves knowledge. For example, the law of gravity was conceived in Ancient times and people thought it feel because some deity willed it to be, or God wished it to fall. Then in medieval times, man thought that some- thing fell because it heavy in nature; therefore, the nature of something is the cause of its action. Finally, Newton uses scientific laws to prove that it is right or Positivism.

He also claims that this is evident in the history of ideologies. There are many ideologies in the Theological stage, less in the Metaphysical stage, and very few in the Positivist. Comte called this a "tendency towards unification" that is there are more explanations for less phenomena in the Theological stage while there are fewer explanations or methodologies for more actions in the Positivist stage. This tendency is a demonstration that positivism is the key to finding knowledge (Hume's argument against Inductive Reasoning).

Now, the question arises why is there a need for a hierarchy of knowing and how the Positive knowledge is superior to the Theological or in more explicit terms, how is Newton's Law of Gravity superior to God's will with regards to the falling rock. Comte compares the stages of Knowledge with human development because "the progress of the individual mind is an indirect evidence of that of the general mind" ( ibid.). Children often give fictitious or Theological reasons for events of the world; adolescence, abstract or Metaphysical; and adults, scientific or Positive. Since the adult stage is the highest stage in our human development, it must follow that scientific or Positive knowledge is the highest. Although Comte's pseudo-psychological-anthropological defense may appeal to the common man, it is a "comic book argument" and does not suffice for the most critical minds, i.e. the Philosophical mind.

At the heart of Comte's argument for Positive Philosophy is the idea of "controlling the phenomena." John Stuart Mill, a successor and critic of Comte, provides a simple yet profound syllogism for Comte's episte- mology. Assuming one isolates his mind from all previous Mathematical, Philosophical, or Theological enquiry, man only "knows" phenomena, i.e. experience, which is relative. Man cannot know the essence of any product but only the relation between two or more phenomena in terms progression or solitude. These relationships are constant or absolute, i.e. the link between two phenomena known as antecedent and conse- quent; moreover, man only knows the Laws, relations, of phenomena because they are absolute, whereas, man's knowledge of the essence or phenomena is relative or unattainable. Hence, Positive Philosophy is only concerned with absolute knowledge can only be found in relations between experiences.

Part III The Problem of Modernity and Comte

All the objects of human reason or enquiry may be naturally divided into two kinds, to wits, Relations of Ideas, and Matters of Fact. Of the first kind are the sciences of Geometry, Algebra, and Arithmetic; and in short every affirmation, which is either intuitively or demonstratively certain. The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the square of the two sides, is a proposition which expresses a relation between these figures…though there were never a circle or triangle in nature, the truths demonstrated by Euclid would for ever retain their certainty. Matters of fact…are not ascertained in the same manner; nor is our evidence of their truth, however great, of a like nature with the fore- going. The contrary of every matter of fact is still possible; because it can never imply a contradiction, and is conceived by the mind with the same facility and distinctness, as if ever so conformable to reality. That the sun will not rise to-morrow is no less intelligible a proposition, and implies no more contradiction, than the affirmation, that it will rise. We should in vain therefore, attempt to demonstrate its falsehood. Were it demonstratively false, it would imply a contradiction, and could never be distinctively conceived by the mind.

- David Hume

Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

David Hume's empirical epistemology separates human understanding into two species, "matters of fact" and "relation of ideas." Like most Modern Philosophers, Hume is concerned with the structure of human thought and the dialectic of phenomena and causation. The most fundamental questions are the source of thoughts and ideas; the different "relations of ideas;" how experiences and facts connect with these relations; and how to attain absolute, certain knowledge. For Hume, the polarity of abstract reasoning and axioms is the means of obtaining absolute knowledge. Although the distinction appears in the ways they are obtained, they are both necessary for human understanding.

Comte destroys this polarity by placing absolute knowledge in Hume's "relation of ideas" or better known as "controlling the phenomena." Facts, or the axioms of argumentation, are now sense data; thus, they are subjective in nature and have lost their appeal. The Philosopher Comte must now reevaluate the world and find a fitting substitute for absolute knowledge; consequently, he resorts to the "relation of ideas" as the only true means of knowing. However, these relations which are found most commonly in Theology, Mathematics and Metaphysics, which are not phenomena but merely axioms from which to practice critical thinking, must now be applied to actual phenomena, i.e. physical, chemical, biological, and social.

Both Comte and Hume make valid arguments for absolute knowledge, but that is where their problem is the search for the absolute. Since Descartes' pursuit for an absolute i.e. cogito ergo sum, modern philosophers have been analyzing their own thought patterns and histories probing for an absolute certain answer of knowledge; however, that is not the goal of Theology, Philosophy or Mathematics. The great Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Anselm, Aquinas, and Lewis were concerned with Universal Truth. They did not isolate the parts of their mind, such as their perceptions, experiences, innate knowing, critical thinking, ideas, et cetera and transform it into the absolute way of knowing; they used everything at their disposal, realizing the frailties of their understanding in certain matters. Modern Philosophers such as Kant, Hume, and Comte were great thinkers but miserable Philosophers, completely misunderstanding the self-examination of knowing provided by Descartes.

Conclusion

What has happened in the field of Philosophy is a misplacement of values. People are now in search for a hierarchy or a certain methodology, yet cannot find it. When they realize this, they become failed absolutist and can go into two directions relativism or universalism. The former is the temptation, which Lewis describes in opening of The Screwtape Letters; the latter is most difficult to understand, but once you truly see it for all its worth, you will have truly opened your Philosophical mind and Theological eye to the ultimate Truth, God himself.

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