America's Great War

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Running Head: America's Great War

America's Great War

Arber Kokoneshi

Florida Metropolitan University

College papers on America's Great War

The events of July and early August 1914 are a classic case of "one thing led to another"- otherwise known as the treaty alliance system.

The explosive that was World War One had been long in the stockpiling; the spark was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Ferdinand's death at the hand of the Black Hand, a Serbian secret society, set in train a mindlessly mechanical series of events that culminated in the world's first global war. Austria-Hungary's reaction to the death of their heir was three weeks in coming. Arguing that the Serbian government was implicated in the machinations of the Black Hand, the Austria-Hungarians opted to take the opportunity to stamp its authority upon the Serbians, crushing the nationalist movements there and cementing Austria-Hungary's influence in the Balkans.

It did so by issuing an ultimatum to Serbia, which in extent of its demand that the assassins be brought to justice effectively nullified Serbia's sovereignty. Austria-Hungary's expectations were that Serbia would reject the remarkably severe terms of the ultimatum, thereby giving her pretext for launching a limited war against Serbia.

Austria-Hungary unsatisfied with Serbia's response to her ultimatum declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia bounded by treaty with Serbia, announced mobilization of its vast army in defense, a slow process that would take around six weeks to complete.

Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary by treaty, viewed the Russian mobilization as an act of war against Austria-Hungary, and after scant warning declared war on Russia on 1 August.

France, bound by treaty to Russia, responded by announcing war against Germany and, by extension, on Austria-Hungary on August 3rd. Germany promptly responded by invading neutral Belgium so as to reach Paris by the shortest possible route.

Britain allied to France by a more loosely worded treaty, which placed a "moral obligation" upon her to defend France, declared war against Germany on August 4th. Her reason for entering the conflict lay in another direction: she was obligated to defend the neutral Belgium by the terms of a 75-year old treaty. With Germany's invasion of Belgium on August 4th, and the Belgian's King appeal to Britain for assistance, Britain committed herself to Belgium's defense later that day. Like France, she was by extension also at war with Austria-Hungary (Duffy, 2000).

During the early phase of the war, the Americans exhibited a wide range of attitudes and a broad sense of detachments from events in Europe. The fact that millions of Americans had significant ties to one or another of the warring nations complicated public response to the war. More than one-third of Euro-American population of the country was either foreign born or had at least one parent who had been. Some retained citizenship in their native land, and many cared deeply about the fate of their mother country. Historical memory of the role of French in American Revolution prompted pro-Allied feelings, as did a sense of common culture and common institutions with Great Britain. But then there were ten million German-Americans, many with family members in the Fatherland and many of who supported openly the Fatherland's cause. Millions of Americans of Irish descent regarded England as a tyrant and, indirectly, Germany as possible means of national liberation. Sicilians, Piedmontese, and others from Italian Peninsula often had only a vague sense of Italian national identity but followed the war news intently after Italy joint the Allies in April 1915. Millions of former residents of the Austria-Hungarian and Russian empires had experienced little but deprivation and discrimination in their countries of origin. Jews from the Russian empire detested the czar, and Poles and Czechs hoped for an end to imperial rule and the creation of the new national states. These broad categorizations masked powerful crosscurrent of difference, dissent, and perspective. It was possible to love German culture while hating German authoritarianism and militarism, to cherish English literature while abhorring English snobbery and arrogance, to be Irish and without wishing for British humiliation. (Kennedy, & Bailey 1986)

At the start of hostilities, official American opinion was confused and uncertain with respect to the legal and economic implications of the war, but in the fall of 1914, the U.S government made critical decisions that directed its course over the next three years (Zieger, 2000). President Wilson issued the routine neutrality proclamation, and urged his countrymen to be neutral in both thought and deed. But Wilson could not even take is own advice, for as a lifelong admirer of British civilization, he was at heart pro-Ally. Most Americans, too, sympathized strongly with Britain and her allies. Ties of ethnic and cultural heritage, as well as commerce, bound the republic to Great Britain, while Anglo-American diplomatic relations has risen to a new level of friendliness.

Germany's assault on "poor little Belgium" whose neutrality she and other powers had guaranteed in 1839, confirmed the image of German aggression, especially after the Chancellor himself dismissed the neutrality treaty as a mere "scrap of paper".

Allied propagandists skillfully drenched the United States with news of "Hunnish" savagery, while avoiding mention of the rapes and atrocities committed by their own soldiers. Quite a number of the stories of German "atrocities" were deliberate falsehoods, like the tales of a "crucified Canadian" a "corpse factory" where Germans supposedly converted human bodies in soap, Belgian babies with their hands amputated, and Belgian maidens with their breasts slashed off. The most effective British propaganda, however, was based on facts, like the brutal German execution of English nurse Edith Cavell and the sinking of Lusitania. Especially as the war dragged on, the feeling deepened that Britain was "fighting our fight." But the great majority still hoped to stay out of the horrible war.

The Germans in any case had built up their vast war machine with adequate stockpiles of military supplies, knowing well that, in the face of a British blockade, they probably could not import armaments from abroad. The sea-controlling allies had amassed a less formidable stockpiles, partly because they knew that they could count on supplementary arms from neutrals, including the United States. A stoppage of American munitions would have been a signal victory for the Germans, a stunning defeat for the Allies.

German and Austrian secret agents resorted to violence. Two German attaches in Washington as well as the Austria-Hungary ambassador were implicated in such underhanded schemes and forced to leave the country in 1915.

In the hand German plotting backfired badly. In August 1915, Dr. Albert, a key German agent, absent-mindedly left his briefcase in a New York elevator car. It was promptly picked up by an agent of secret services, and some of the documents relating to industrial sabotage were published in the newspapers. The American was again filled with images of German spies –men with short-cropped square heads and rolls of fat on the backs of their bull necks. Thus American opinion, already ill disposed, was further turned against the Kaiser and his Fatherland.

US diplomatic relations with Britain, in spite of America's pro Ally bias, were not all-smooth sailing. The naval blockade, which was still Britain most offensive weapon, was bound to bruise American shippers. By heavily mining the North Sea and forcing neutral ships off the high seas into ports for close inspections, Britain went beyond the rules of the offshore blockade sanctioning by internationals law. The British also arbitrarily redefined contraband to include foodstuffs, cotton, and other items not hitherto regarded as directly useful in waging war. These annoying British practices violated American traditions, especially freedom of the seas.

Germans at the other hand posed a clear threat to the United Sates. Berlin officials declared that they would try not to sink neutral shipping, but they conceded that mistakes would probably occur. Outraged by the U-boat menace, President Wilson ringingly warned Germany that she would be held to "strict accountability" for any attacks on American's vessels and citizens.

While such debates run on, German U-boats began their deadly work. From February to early May 1915, they sank about ninety ships of various kinds in the war zones. But the submarine issue became acute when the passengers liner Lusitania was torpedoed and sunk off the coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915, with the loss of 1198 lives, including 128 Americans. The Lusitiana was carrying 4200 cases of small ammunition, a fact the Germans used to justify the sinking. But the United States was swept by a wave of shock and anger at this act of "mass murder" and "piracy." The New York Nation branded the deed as for which "a Hun would blush, a Turk be ashamed." Yet Wilson, sticking to his verbal guns, made some diplomatic progress.

After another British liner, the Arabic, was sunk in August 1915, with the loss of two American lives, Berlin reluctantly agreed not to sink unarmed and unresisting passenger ships without warning. This pledge appeared to be violated in March 1916, when a French passenger steamer, the Sussex, was torpedoed. The infuriated Wilson informed the Germans that unless they renounce the inhuman practice of sinking merchantmen without warning he would break diplomatic relations- an almost certain prelude to war. Germany reluctantly accepted Wilson's Sussex ultimatum, thereby agreeing not to sink passenger ships without proper warning. But Berlin attached a long string to its Sussex pledge: America would have to persuade the allies to respect international law in their unlawful blockade. By accepting the pledge but ignoring the string, Wilson won another temporary, though precarious, diplomatic victory- precarious because Germany could pull the string whenever she chose, and the President would have to sever relations.

Why were the American people finally dragged into the conflagration, despite their two and one-half years of determination to stay out?

The German U-boat was undoubtedly the reason. In a figurative sense, America's war declaration bore the well-known trademark, "Made in Germany." Take away the submarine and the United States might have stayed out. Choosing the right foe was not difficult. British and other Allies restriction on America commerce were galling but endurable; claims for damages could be collected later. But Germany resorted to the mass killing of civilians; and there was no adequate monetary recompense for taking life. One Boston newspaper luridly concluded that while the Allies were a "gang of thieves," the Germans were a "gang of murderers." Many Americans were so deeply disturbed by the U-boat, and by its threat to freedom of the seas, that at the outset they proposed to fight a limited-liability war. They would pull out as soon as the Germans agreed to respect America's rights on the high seas. But in the pointing the finger of accusation solely at the blood-splattered submarine, the American people overlooked their own share of responsibility. Undeniably, the United States was in some degree to blame for inviting these ruthless reprisals. The Germans found it easier to resort to their last desperate throw of the dice because of America's seemingly unfriendly policies. She was sending munitions in vast quantities to their foes; she was advancing credits for such purchases; and she was acquiescing in the "unusual" British blockade that slowly starving the Fatherland, all the awhile condemning the German counter-blockade.

Once the "overt" acts came, the Americans people accepted the verdict of war with considerable enthusiasm. At heart they were pro-Ally. They were bound closely to the British and French by profitable golden threads, which were in danger by being cut off by ruthless German tactics.

Fear of Germany's militaristic and monarchical threat to democracy was a clincher. Many Americans assumed that if the Kaiser won the war he would dash across the Atlantic, with millions of spike-helmeted soldier. Hunnish "slitters of babies' throats" would brush inside the Monroe Doctrine, and than crush precious liberties under Prussian boot heel. Even if there would not be German immediate assault, the triumph of the Kaiser would badly upset the long-established European balance of power. The United States would then, as many apprehensive Americans believed, be placed in ultimate jeopardy.

Danger of a future attack, either directly or by way of Latin America, appears to have been graver than those of an immediate invasion. Naval and military difficulties hampering a German assault were immense. But countless Americans accepted such an attack as an alarming possibility. They preferred to fight in 1917, when they had European allies afloat, than to wait until they might have to face a wrath of the German militarist alone.

As the crisis developed early in 1917, America's entrance to war became inevitable. Desperate German's militarist, with confidence in their U-boats, had concluded that they had more to gain than to lose by making the United States an open enemy. Certain defeat was too high a price for them to pay for America's continued "neutrality." (Kennedy, & Bailey, 1986)

The Allies demanded the restoration of Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro; the evacuation of the invaded territories in France, Russia, and Rumania; the restitution of "provinces formerly torn from the Allies by force"; the "liberation" of Italians, Slavs, and Rumanians. The German Supreme High Command regarded these aims as no less than the intention to dismember and dishonor Germany and its allies. Germany has been deliberately vague in its response to Reichstag and public support for the retention of the territories already won by the German armies, and for starving England into submission.

At a conference called by the Kaiser in the castle of Pless on January 10,1917, Field Marshall von Holtzendorff brushed aside the prophetic warnings of Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg that unrestricted warfare would inevitable add America to the list of Germany' enemies, reviving their confidence; that German-American citizens would not revolt; that America ships and troops would actually reach Europe. Disdaining the pessimism of Bethmann the Cassandra, Admiral Holtzendorff assured the Kaiser: "I guarantee on my word as a naval officer that no American would set foot on the continent!" This convinced the Kaiser and on January 31, 1917, the German government announced that begging on February 1, its submarines would sink without warning all ships, including neutrals after a brief period of grace, which were sighted within a broad zone around Great Britain, France, Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. One American vessel a week would be allowed to sail to and from England by a specific route.

President Wilson's response was to sever diplomatic relations with Germany on February 3. Since the Kaiser's government had already discounted the probability of America's entry into the war, the new foreign minister, Zimmermann, wanted to distract and pin down the United States by embroiling it in further conflict with Mexico, and by making America fear a Japanese volte face and attack.

On March 1, the Americans were outraged by the publication of the notorious Zimmermann Telegram, which had been intercepted by British naval intelligence and divulged to President Wilson. In his cable Zimmermann had instructed the German minister in Mexico City, Heinrich von Eckhardt, to propose to the president of Mexico a German-Mexico alliance, and to promise German support in a Mexican reconquest of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Mexico was to persuade Japan to change sides in the war from the Allies to the Central Powers. After the provocation with Zimmermann Telegram war with Germany was all but inevitable.

The unrestricted submarine warfare was now waged with deadly efficiency against British and neutral shipping. By the end of the war, the U-boats sank 5708 Allied and neutral ships, including about half of the United Kingdom's total cargo fleet. Until in became belligerent and adopted the convoy system to which England belatedly resorted, America had its share of ships losses. The German submarines sank the American vessels Houstonic, Lyman M. Law, Algonquin, City of Memphis, Illinois, Vigilancia, and Healdton in the months of February and March 1917. By now most Americans felt provoked beyond endurance. On April 2 President Wilson read a war message to a joint of session of Congress. After impassionate and often a bitter debate, the American declaration of war on Germany was adopted on April 6, by vote 82 to 6 in Senate, and 373 to 50 in House of Representatives. Contrary to the contemptuous predictions of the Kaiser's military advisors, two million American troops and vast quantities of supplies were transported in vigilantly guarded convoys to Europe, and Germany's fate was thereby sealed by November 11, 1918. (King, 1972)

The American people were not duped into war by profit-seeking connivers. They were not dragged in, as later charged, by Wall Street bankers, propagandists, sloganeers, weaponeers, and munitioneers. Although loans for the Allies were not inexhaustible, the munitions makers were already reaping obscene profits, unhampered by gornment restrictions and wartime excess-profits taxes. Their unpublished slogan might well have been "Neutrality Forever"(Kennedy, & Bailey, 1986)

References Page

Kennedy, M. David. , & Bailey, A. Thomas. (1986). The American Pageant. Brief Edition, Volume II. The Great War.

King. Jere, Clemens. (1972). The First World War

Zieger, H. Robert. (2000). America's Great War.

Duffy, Michael. (2000). The Causes of World War I. (online). http://www.firstworldwar.com/origins/causes.htm

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Literacy

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Literacy

Writing is used as a method of communication. In order to communicate with others their must be a connection between the reader and the writer. I learned how to achieve this connection by appealing to how the reader might feel. My personal development of my essays is highly influenced by my ninth grade teacher, Mrs. McKeller. Mrs. McKeller taught me that without gaining a reader's respect, my own viewpoints are underappreciated and disregarded. Since receiving her advice I am a more confident writer.

When I was in ninth grade I was so non expressive. I did not write with a lot of confidence, so my papers lacked a part of my personality. I remember one incident where I had to write an autobiography about myself and briefly mention someone that had an impact on my life. I was horrified by the words "autobiography" because I hated to talk about myself. I am an extremely analytical writer so this task was very hard for me. For once in my life I was finally analyzing myself. Writing about myself showed me that it is okay to talk about sadness and heartache and the pressure that life brings. Sometimes, I guess it is okay to just relax and let people in to know the real me.

Although I overcame the fear of writing with expression, Mrs. McKeller helped me realize that "Hey Danielle, everyone does not have to agree with what you write about." She would always tell me that because I would get a little offended by people's reactions to my writings. Fortunately, Mrs. McKeller taught me that it is the writer's responsibility to persuade the reader into a new point of view. This persuasion has to take place my making a bond between the writer and the audience.

A bond between an audience and writer is an essential element of a well-written paper. The first goal of my writing is to grab a reader's attention. Readers do not want to be bored. For example, most people enjoy reading something because it appeals to them, but when a topic is introduced in a dull manner, the reader immediately loses interest. However, once that attention is grabbed, the audience tunes in. Whether or not the audience disagrees is irrelevant. The audience should understand the content before making any opinions. My purpose is to let the audience know exactly where I stand on a topic and deliver the topic in the most interesting way that I can.

Appealing to a reader's own personal attitude toward a subject, however, involves an entirely different approach. Instead of writing in a way that I feel information should be received, I give the reader some alternatives. For instance, "Hot pink is a prettier color than dark blue" is my own opinion, but if I say " Hot pink appears to stand out more than dark blue" it gives more possibilities for the reader to think about and explore. Possibility is my main objective of writing. I want the reader to want to change something that they disagree with.

Besides writing to appeal to others persuasively, I generally like to write with open-mindedness. My English teacher told me that the world was full of new ideas, people, and places, so I had to step outside of everything that I knew in order to appeal to others. Her words of advice have proven to be true thus far and have definitely affected me today.

Today, I write with more confidence, pride, self-awareness, and dignity. My awareness shows through my organization. I used to jot down ideas but now I actually plan my paper step by step. Starting from the traditional introduction, I write every sentence with the idea of clear content. I want people to understand what I write about. I want a reader to be able to follow my ideas without being misled or confused by tangled sentences.

When developing my ideas, I subcategorize at least three main pints of interest. For instance, I always write a topic sentence and give at least three supporting details. However, my details are sometimes expanded on so much that I have to break them up into individual paragraphs. After the paragraphs are divided I can elaborate more on one central idea.

Besides structural content, I check for mistakes in grammar. Punctuaton, sentence structure, and spelling are key factors of an effective essay. Another factor of my writing style is getting other's viewpoints and opinions of my essay. After writing an essay I have always let others edit and make revisions. This process of revision and editing lets me know what areas need improvement. In other words, I definitely need a

4

rough draft. My ideas do not flow very easily; therefore I have to carefully plan them out first.

Thus, writing plays an important role in my life. Over the years I have greatly matured and so has my writing. Therefore, I will continue t grow from my strengths and build on my weaknesses so that I can become a better writer in the future.

raft. My ideas do not flow very easily; therefore I have carefully plan them out first.

Thus, writing plays an important role in my life. Over the years I have greatly matured and so has my writing. Therefore, I will continue to grow from my strengths and build on my weaknesses so that I can become a better writer in the future.

Please note that this sample paper on Literacy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Literacy, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Literacy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Multi User Operating Systems

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1. Introduction

The aim of this report is discuss or describe the following-

· Main features of a Multi User Operating System

· Different types of Multi User Operating System

Online writing services offer help on Multi User Operating Systems

· Physical components of a Multi User Operating System

· Software components of a Multi User Operating System

I have done extensive research on the Internet, from Class Notes from the Lecturer and in Articles/Books to get the information required for this report. All references will be listed in the Appendix (No 6) at the end of this report.

. Define a multi user operating system

An Operating system is a computer program which runs each time a computer is switched on. Its purpose is to manage the resources of the system and to allocate resources to processes. A multi user operating system supports two or more users simultaneously. It must be able to schedule all its processes so that each process gets some attention paid to it by the processor or is able to access a peripheral device. The scheduler is responsible for allocating resources to processes. It allows users to manage computer resources, run programs and communicate with other computer systems.

The aim of a Multi User Operating System is to allow all the users the impression that they are working on their own personal computer, even if they are working within a large system, it aims to keep each user apart, for example giving them their own folders and directories, etc.

Principle features are

· Multi-tasking (performs or more tasks apparently simultaneously).

Multi-tasking is allowing a user to perform more than one computer task (such as the operation of an application program) at a time. The operating system is able to keep track of where you are in these tasks and go from one to the other without losing information. Multi-tasking makes it possible to print one document while creating another, or to perform lengthy computations in the background while working on something else on the screen.

Two tasks cannot use the same area of computer memory, nor use the same input device (keyboard, disk drive) or the same output device (printer, tape backup) at the same time.

Say you have 4 programs multitasking, all running simultaneously and each performing its own task. In addition, you may have an anti-virus program running in the background. Then there's the date and time clock on your screen. Inside the computer, its memory is straining, and the CPU is frantically working at breakneck speed, sending out millions of instructions each second, receiving and storing information on the hard drive, while a fan tries to keep it from overheating. It gives the concept of storing multiple tasks in memory and switching between them in such a manner as to give the illusion that the tasks are being carried out simultaneously. Another form of multitasking is switching from one program to another, but only one program at a time actually runs. The other runs in the background, and only runs when you return to it.

Co-operative Multi-tasking is the process currently controlling the CPU and must offer control to other processes; all programs must cooperate for it to work. If one program does not cooperate, it can hog the CPU. It lets the programs decide when they wish to let other tasks run. This method is not good since it lets one process monopolise the CPU and never let other processes run.

Pre-emptive multitasking forces applications to share the CPU whether they want to or not. It moves the control of the CPU to the OS, letting each process run for a given amount of time (a time slice) and then switching to another task. This method prevents one process from taking complete control of the system and thereby making it seem as if it is crashed.

· Resource Sharing (shares physical resources such as CPU, memory, backing store, peripherals, software, etc amongst a number of different applications). There are more users than resources, so everybody shares for example printers.

· Background Processing (running a process at a later time i.e. batch processing). A batch job is a program that is assigned to the computer to run without further user interaction. An example of one is a printing request. Batch jobs are said to run in the background and interactive programs run in the foreground. Interactive programs are given priority over batch programs, which run during the time intervals when the interactive programs are waiting for user requests.

Three main types of multi user operating system

· Multiprocessor ( or more CPU's share the same resources and service the same work).

A computer can use a network to share peripheral devices for example a printer or disk files. Operating systems can run multiple programs at once, interleaving them. Programs are required to specify in advance what resources they needed so that they could avoid conflicts with other programs running at the same time. Some operating systems offer dynamic allocation of resources. Programs can request further allocations of resources after they begin running. Multiprocessor system can save money, by sharing power supplies, housings, and peripherals. They can execute programs more quickly and can have increased reliability. More advantages are that they can have computational speed up, SIMD Single Instruction, Multiple Data - All processors execute the same instruction,

MIMD Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data - Independent processing streams which is

more versatile than SIMD and share memory.

· Time sliced (switches from one process to another on a timed basis)

There may be many users making simultaneous requests on the computer system. Normally the number of physical processors in the system is fewer than the number of threads that might be run in parallel. Most systems support time slicing, also known as pre-emptive multitasking, in order to get around this problem. In a system that is time sliced, threads run for a short while, and are then pre-empted; that is, a hardware timer fires which causes the operating system to re-evaluate which threads should be run, potentially stopping execution on currently running threads and running other threads which have not be executed recently. This allows even single processor machines to run multiple threads.

Round Robin

The scheduler is the component of the OS, which is responsible for the assignment of CPU time to tasks. The scheduler assigns the same amount of time to each task that is ready in a ring - all tasks have the same priority. This is slightly problematic, since one often wishes certain tasks to be put in the background (e.g. printing) while others get more CPU time (like games). Therefore a priority system must be implemented.

Scheduling

If you assign each task a priority class and assign CPU time to each class corresponding to its priority and then within each class you obtain a very efficient scheduling architecture. In either system a task may be suspended prematurely if a hardware interrupt occurs, especially if a higher priority task was waiting for this event and has therefore become more runnable. The scheduling algorithm used by the scheduler determines which task will run next.

· Distributed (number of system interconnected on a communications network number of processes linked together within one building/geographical area (LAN)).

If computer programming and data that computers work on are spread out over more than one computer, it is usually over a network. Some large and small enterprises over time are moving (distributing) applications and data to where they can operate most efficiently in the enterprise, to some mix of desktop workstations, local area network servers, regional servers, Web servers, and other servers. A popular trend has been client/server computing which is simply the view that a client computer can provide certain capabilities for a user and request others from other computers that provide services for the clients. Heterogeneous systems don't share memory or the clock (fault tolerance).

. Types of multi user operating systems available

· Unix

Is a popular multi-user, multi tasking operating system. Unix has separate primary command line interfaces. In Unix a command line interface is known as a shell. Some graphical interfaces exist as well, such as Motif and Gnome. Each user is given their own account and password. Security is paramount.

Due to its portability, flexibility, and power, UNIX has become the leading operating system for workstations.

· Linux

Is a freely distributable open source operating system that runs on a number of hardware platforms. Linux is free and because it runs on many platforms, including PCs and Macintoshes, Linux has become an extremely popular alternative to proprietary operating systems.

· Can access DOS/Windows/NT file systems

· Compatibility with any version of UNIX

· X is an open standard

· Many Windows programs run under UNIX

· Scripts written on Linux will run almost always unchanged on another version and visa-versa

· Backups are compatible between different distributions of Linux and versions of UNIX, as well as other Systems (except NT).

· NT

· Access to any UNIX file systems is extremely limited

· NT GUI is closed, proprietary

· No UNIX programs run under NT

· Batch scripts written on NT are not necessarily compatible with those on Win5, WFW or DOS

· NTBACKUP only works on NT and often the tapes cannot be moved from one machine to another, especially if they are different manufacturers.

Linux works to standards that are established by groups of competiting companies. Although they are competitors, they realize the need for standards. Microsoft does not have standards in the true sense they are generally proprietary.

An NT script might be considered portable since it will work on any other NT machine, but only NT. However, it is missing many of the basic tools that make UNIX/Linux scripting so powerful.

4. Main hardware components of a multi user operating system

· Processor (e.g. ALU, CU) Is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a computer.

CPU (central processing unit) is an older term for the processor. The CPU in a computer contains the logic circuitry that performs the instructions of a computers programs. It has the system clock rate which equals the rate of an electronic pulse used to synchronize processing which is measured in MHZ (megahertz (1 mhz = 1 million cycles per second)). The Bus width is the amount of data the CPU can transmit at a time to main memory and to input and output devices. An 8-bit bus moves 8 bits of data at a time. Bus widths can be 8, 16, , 64, or 18. The word size is the amount of data the CPU can process at one time. An 8-bit processor can manipulate 8 bits at a time. Processors can be 8-bit, 16-bit, -bit, or 64-bit.

ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit - Is the part of a computer processor that carries out arithmetic and logic operations on the operands in computer instruction words. The ALU has direct input and output access to the processor controller, main memory (random access memory or RAM in a personal computer), and input/output devices. Inputs and outputs flow along a bus.

Control Unit - Is the part of the computer that controls the Fetch Execute Cycle. It takes numerous cycles to do even a simple addition of two numbers.

The Fetch Execute Cycle

The computer can only do one thing at a time. Each action must be broken down into the most basic steps. One round of steps from getting an instruction back to getting the next instruction is called the Fetch Execute Cycle.

Fetch - get an instruction from Main Memory

Decode - translate it into computer commands

Execute - actually process the command

Store write the result to Main Memory

· Memory (e.g. RAM, ROM, Virtual Memory) - Is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that your computers microprocessor can reach quickly. When your computer is in normal operation, its memory usually contains the main parts of the operating system and some or all of the application programs and related data that are being used.

RAM (Random Access Memory) main memory. Volatile memory that is erased when power is turned off.

ROM (Read Only Memory) memory which cannot be changed. Contains the minimum instructions to start the computer. It cannot be changed by the user and contains the minimum instructions the computer needs to get started, called booting.

Virtual memory - Memory must be managed also by the operating system. All those rotating turns of CPU use leave data waiting around in buffers. Care must be taken not to lose data!! One way to help out the traffic jam is to use virtual memory. This includes disk space as part of main memory. While it is slower to put data on a hard disk, it increases the amount of data that can be held in memory at one time.

· Data storage devices (e.g. Floppy Disks, Hard Disk) - Computer storage is the holding of data in an electromagnetic form for access by a computer processor. Primary storage is data in random access memory (RAM) and other built-in devices. Secondary storage is data on hard disk, tapes, and other external devices.

Floppy disk used for storing data. 5¼ (This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between 100K and 1.MB (megabytes) of data) and ½ (Despite their small size, microfloppies have a larger storage capacity than their cousins -- from 400K to 1.4MB of data. The most common sizes for PCs are 70K and 1.44MB) sizes exist with the smaller size dominating now. It is portable. Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are much less expensive.

Hard disk - Is what controls the motion of the hard disks, which contain the data. Usually located within the computer case. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 megabytes to several gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes.

· Terminals, Input devices (e.g. Mouse, Keyboard) A terminal is a keyboard and computer screen. Also called display terminal or video display terminal (VDT).

Input device - Any operation, program, or device that transfers data from a computer and stores it.

Mouse - an input device consisting of or more buttons with a rolling ball underneath. The cursor on the screen actually follows the motion of the mouse ball.

Keyboard - An input device with keys for letters of the alphabet, numbers and various symbols.

· Output devices (e.g. Monitor, Printer) - Describes any operation, program, or device that transfers data to a computer and displays or prints it out for example.

Monitor - device which displays computer output. It is a display screen. The term monitor generally implies graphics capabilities.

Printer A device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many different types of printers. There are several types of printer some of which are Dot Matrix which creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon., Ink-jet which Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality text and graphics and Laser which uses the same technology as copy machines. Laser printers produce very high quality text and graphics.

5. Main software components of a multi user operating system

· Kernel - interfaces directly with hardware, first level interrupt handler, process scheduler, inter-process communication. The kernel is responsible for managing resources, memory management, process and task management, disk management and is always present in main memory.

The kernel has 5 layers which are the User Interface, File System, Input/Output, Memory Management and Kernel.

· Device handlers - part of Operating System which services the requests on the device request queue. Device Handler is a common interface used by applications to send output to printers and other output devices. The Device Handler stores all device information in a central area where it can be referenced from all associated accounts. A device can include CD ROMS, Floppy disks, display monitors, etc. A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer.

· Spoolers (Simultaneous Peripheral Output On Line) process of performing the computing process and providing output at the same time, non-shareable, multi-programming. It is a program, which produces output at a rate greater that the output devices can handle.

· User interface - link between user and all inner workings of the software and hardware, e.g. Command Line Interface (CLI) or Graphical User Interface (GUI). The GUI has allowed computers to become more accessible and easier to use. CLIs left much to be desired in the way of easy of use, and ease of learning. CLIs are a very inefficient way (for most individuals) to utilize computing power. One disadvantage to CLIs is that the only method the user has of interfacing with the computer is the keyboard. GUI systems have many advantages over their CLI counterparts. The graphical nature of such systems, along with the ability to accept input from sources other than the keyboard, eliminated the need to memorize complicated keystrokes. Users can simply point and click the commands they desire, never needing to memorize actions, because the commands are all visible right on the screen.

6. Bibliography

Class notes from Lecturer.

www.whatis.com

http//pp.wrox.com/articles/

http//www.linux-tutorial.info

http//www.pdcl.eng.wayne.edu/training/Multitasking/Multitasking.html

http//hjem.getnet.dk/rune_moeller_barnkob/multitasking.html

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As I walk slowly on the coarse wood of the boardwalk, the sand clings to the bottoms of my feet, then lets go unwillingly as I travel towards the stretch of soft, familiar land before me. The sun beats down on my face, warming my cheeks as I look upon it, searching the skies for the usual white birds, flying freely, carelessly in the blue, cloudless space. In the distance, I hear the calls of mothers, fathers, and grandparents, the young ones running along the surf, feeling as if nothing could ruin their delightful day in an exciting, unfamiliar place. As I travel past the many people stretched out on an array of colored towels, some orange, blue and pink, I imagine to myself the many different lives these people live. The young woman sprawled out on her towel, working on her tan, and keeping an eye out for the men that pass her by. There is also the muscular, tan young man, playing a game of tackle football with a few friends, running breathlessly across the sand and jumping in the air to catch the ball, all the while keeping an eye out for any pretty young women that may be looking his way. These people, I suppose, venture to my stretch of sand for relief from their busy worlds of jobs, bills, and worries. They find it a place where they can let loose and forget their troubles. My time spent in this place of warm sand, bright sunlight and free will is spent much differently. I find that as I walk along the splashing waves and watch as the tiny birds scuttle along looking for food, then quickly retreat as a playful wave comes near, that this is life in its simplest form. I need only to find my place among the tourists that crowd the sand and sit and engulf myself in the peacefulness and tranquility of the waves to be happy. This leads me to think of my troubles and worries in this clearest state of mind, and I realize that no problem is too big a challenge to conquer. If all else is lost but my free will and my shore, then life would still be more wonderful than any life of riches and possessions could ever be.

As I open my eyes, the sun no longer beats down on my cheeks and a cool breeze teases the hairs on my arms. The sounds of birdcalls have ceased and all that remains is the crash of the waves on the shore. The constant song of the ocean, never weakened by the fall of night, plays in my head as I gaze around me to finally see isolation. The tourists have retired to their beds or gone out to explore the town that is my home. I close my eyes again and slip into a deep sleep.

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Planning is a key factor in the success of any business, and conversely, the failure to plan adequately is one of the fastest routes to business failure. There are many considerations that an entrepreneur must decide such as type of business, legal structure, permits and licenses, market planning, business plan, location, organization management planning, business telephone line, mission statement, and a business checking account. There are many sources of information to help to start a business in an organized way, such as a business plan from the office of Economic Development & Planning located in the County Office Building, or books in that can be found in any library.

The first decision that the entrepreneur must make is what type of business he/she wants to start. The decision should be based on the amount of knowledge and skill that they have in the field that they are considering. The better that they know the industry, the stronger there likelihood they will have a successful business, and the better base they will have for the rest of the decisions that will have to be made in the time to come.

The next important decision in the business planning process is the legal structure of the company. The three legal structures are Sole-proprietorship, Partnership and a Corporation. Each one of these legal structures has its advantages and disadvantages. The different aspects that each legal structure differs are management control, capital, liability, income taxes, business continuity, and government regulations. The understanding of these different issues is crucial to the decision of which structure is the best one for the entrepreneurs business. Be sure to consult an attorney before making this decision.

In a sole-proprietorship, the owner retains total control of all the decisions that need to be made. The ability to raise capital is limited by the financial resources and the credit worthiness of the individual owner. The owner has the ultimate liability for all the actions and debts of the business. A sole-proprietorship is not a separate taxable entity. The individual owner reports business revenue, expenses and net income (or loss) on his/her individual tax return (form 1040). The business ends with death of owner unless previously sold or transferred. The government has very limited regulations, and few records are legally required. A D.B.A. (Doing Business As) form is available at most office supply stores or at a County Department of Economic Development office, which also requires a small fee. Completed form with notarized signatures must be filed with the County Clerk¡¦s Office.

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In a partnership, the control is shared by the partners in accordance with the partnership agreement. If there are two partner¡¦s the agreement does not have to be fifty-fifty. It can be what ever the two decide on in the beginning. The ability to raise capital is expanded somewhat as partners are able to pool their respective financial resources. Both partners have joint and several liabilities for actions and debts of partnership. The partnership is not a separate taxable entity. An information return (form 1065) must be filled out each year to report partnership activity; however, individual partners report their respective shares of income (or loss) personally. The business ends with death of a partner unless written partnership agreement contains transfer conditions. The government has limited regulation and few records are required. They should have a partnership agreement, which is available at most office supply stores or at the local County Department of Economic Development office. Completed form with all signatures notarized must be filed with the County Clerk¡¦s Office. It is advisable to consult a lawyer about a partnership agreement before filing the certificate.

With a corporation, the day-to-day control rests with the hired management team. Ultimately control is vested with the Board of Directors who are influenced through the voting process by the shareholders. The ability to raise capital is potentially greatly expanded because additional shares of stock may be sold. The liability of the individual shareholders for actions and debts of the Corporation is limited to their equity investment. A C Corporation is a separate taxable entity (form 110 is required to be filled out). An S Corporation is taxed essentially like a partnership. An information return (form 110s) must be filled out. The business has a perpetual life distinct from that of its owners. The shares of stock are freely transferable. The government treats a Corporation as a separate legal and taxable entity, and extensive record-keeping is required. There are also complex operating regulations to follow (which differ from state to state). Forms to incorporate are available at any office supply store and should be filed with the Secretary of State in Albany (518-474-600) if planned start up is in New York State.

Licenses and permits are grants of authority from the Federal, State and local political subdivisions to individuals, corporations or partnerships to carry on certain activities. Licenses often involve the payment of fees and proof of qualification by examination. Legally, it is up to you (the business owner) to know if your business requires licensing. Before you start a project, carefully research the applicable state and local laws. For local licenses and permits contact the village/town hall and the county office for local requirements. If you plan to operate a business in your own home, check to make sure you are not in violation of local zoning ordinances. For a construction company the owner or contractor will need to have specific permits and licenses for each job. A call to the County Clerk¡¦s office gets you started with local government. Depending on your plans, you may also need to check with your local planning board, zoning board and building inspector. For construction jobs it is advisable that you check with the DOT regional office in the area of the project to determine if any permits may be necessary for your particular job.

There are many occupations in which various governmental agencies and privately owned businesses require the worker to have a license before he/she can work on the project. Each year there will be fewer trades people, contractors, ect., that will need to be licensed. In the years to come it must be expected that all contractors, trades persons, etc. will be required to be licensed by government authority. The majority of cities in the United States require the trades people to be licensed to conduct their business.

As the business owner and the employer it is your responsibility to determine if a licensed operator is required for the job. If a license is required you must assure that only a properly licensed person performs the job. The failure to make sure that the employee has the correct license for the job can result in severe penalties and possible imprisonment. It is generally required that in larger cities workers such as carpenters, plumbers, welders, truck drivers, crane operators, heavy equipment operators, masons, steel erectors, laborers, etc., all have the proper licenses. Some licenses are state issued and are required in order to work any place in the state (crane operators, truck drivers, etc.).

Let¡¦s turn now to the issues of marketing.

Marketing may be defined as the planning, pricing, promoting, and placing of your product of service. General construction companies have an unusual marketing problem because they are sometimes hard to categorize, especially if their project tends to be unique, as opposed to products of manufacturers, which tend to be massed produced. Some important questions the owner should ask are exactly the same issues covered in the mission statement

„h Who are my customers?

„h Where are they?

„h What do they want?

„h When do they want it?

„h Why should they buy it from me?

„h How do I get it to them?

Pricing, for the construction company, relates to how well the project is estimated. After the contractor estimates the cost of the project they must add a fair profit. At this point it is important to know your competition and to determine construction ¡§profit margins¡¨ for your locale. The better you know your competitors the more competitive you will be. The success of the firm can very well be determined by the skill of the estimator. In the competitive bidding market the lowest reasonable bid most often get the contract.

Promoting is the art of selling and can be accomplished in a number of different ways, such as advertising, brochures, direct mailings, and personal contacts. Your decision on the best way to promote your construction company will depend on the type of contract you are competing for and your market. In the construction business competing for the jobs in your market area is done with bids. The two different types of contracts are public bids, or negotiated bids. For public competitive bids pricing is the primary marketing emphasis, and for negotiated bids contacts are most important. Getting to know other contractors in the area is very important for your business. The relationships developed will enhance opportunities for networking which allows small firms to increase their capabilities by pooling knowledge and other resources together. It also allows one to specialize, and limit the size and scope of the business investments required.

For the construction business, placing the ¡§product¡¨ consist of finishing the project on time in accordance with the estimate. The better your construction firm places the product, the better your reputation. This effort is very much dependent on both the skills of the estimator, and skills of the employees and quality / clarity of the contract, and also the management skill of the firm, and will have a strong impact on your ability to obtain contracts in the future.

A good business plan that is updated periodically makes the most powerful financing proposal a small business can have. A logically arranged and reasonably complete business plan is essential for operating and growing a business in well controlled way. A good plan serves your needs for business analysis, provides a financial forecast based on your rational assumptions about the future. Budgeting guidelines, including a working capital budget and a break-even analysis, help determine the amount and kinds of financing most appropriate for your business. A good plan also helps you present your needs to financing sources. Useful and persuasive information about your business is what lenders and investors need to make swift, accurate and helpful decisions.

There are many suggested outlines accessible available. The best are flexible and can be tailored to your own needs. The following is a good example

Outline of a Business Plan

„h Cover sheet Name of business, names of principals, address and phone numbers

„h Statement of purpose

„h Table of contents

Section One The business

A. Description of Business

B. Product/Service

C. Market

D. Location of Business

E. Competition

F. Management

G. personnel

H. Application and Expected Effect of Loan (if needed)

I. Summary

Section Two Financial Data

A. Source and Applications of Funding

B. Capital Equipment List

C. Balance Sheet

D. Break-Even Analysis

E. Income Projections (Profit and Loss Statements)

1. Three-year summery

. Detail by month for first year

. Detail by quarter for first and third years

4. Notes of explanations

F. Cash Flow Projection

1. Detail by month for first year

. Detail by quarter for second and third years

. notes of explanation

D. Deviation Analysis

H. Historical Financial Reports for Existing Business

1. Balance sheets for past three years

. Income statements for past three years

. Tax returns

Section Three Supporting Documents

A. Personal resume

B. Personal balance sheets

C. Cost of living budget

D. Credit reports

E. Letters of reference

F. Job descriptions

G. Letters of intent

H. Copies of leases, contracts, legal documents

To summarize there are three key reasons that a begging business owner should go though the trouble of writing a business plan. The first one, is the process of putting a business plan together, including the thought you put in before beginning to write it. This forces you to take an objective, critical, unemotional look at your business project in its entirety. Also your finished business plan is good operating tool which, if used properly will help you manage your business and work effectively towards its success. Furthermore the completed business plan communicates your ideas to others and provides the basis for your financing proposal. As you can see a well thought out business plan can be a very useful tool for your new company.

Let¡¦s now look at the issue of location.

Location is a key to help your business to make money. When you first start your business, first try to locate the ideal site, the figure out how close you can come to it. The business owner can get information about specific areas from a local Chamber of Commerce, industrial development commission (they can give you information about tax breaks and financing incentives for business which will employ substantial numbers of people in towns under their commissions), trade sources such as magazines and associations, planning commissions, bankers, and lawyers. For a construction company, the better the owner know the area, the better knowledge he/she will have of where the work is. Also the better that they know the local community people, the more popular they will be when it comes time for work to be done. If you have a good reputation as a competent and courteous professional, the better your potential of being chosen to do the required work.

One should not establish a business in a given location simply because the price is low. Rent and purchase price, are fixed by market forces, and a low price usually reflects desirability. For a construction business this might not be a problem due to the large equipment that the industry requires and the potentially ugly material that sometimes get stored at the business center. The bottom line is that the three most important success factors are said to be location, location and location.

Now lets cut to the heart of success.

Poor management has been identified as the number one killer of small businesses. The key role of management is that it provides leadership and guidance. After establishing goals and objectives for the firm, it then becomes necessary to formulate policies, which are in keeping with those goals, and to communicate those policies to all members of the company. Organization and management planning consists of an operating structure for the company with firm lines of authority, responsibility, and accountability clearly stated. One good way to clearly state this is by distributing organizational charts and job descriptions to all the employee¡¦s. A clear outline of a particular employees responsibilities is even more fundamental for the small business because the individual will be forced to assume several functions with correspondingly large demands on their time. The ability to delegate becomes a critical step in management.

The first step in preparing the organizational chart is performing work analysis. A work analysis is the organization and understanding of all the jobs that need to be done within your company. After understanding the vital activities that need to be accomplished, staffing considerations become very important. Being able to hire the best person for the job will help your business grow and become successful. As mentioned earlier, the estimator can be the key person that gets the contracts or not, so letting him/her understand the importance of their position can help you out. The chart is not static, but should be continually updated to reflect growth and change within the company. A principal management role is to keep the companies energy and efforts focused on the long-term goals and objectives. Performance of the company should be evaluated in relation to these goals.

Some of the other smaller but still important details that have to be taken into consideration are a business checking account, business telephone line, and announcements. It is very important to have you business account separate from your personal account. The bank will require a stamped and certified DBA certification or a copy of your corporation papers with your corporate seals affixed. Also it is important to have a business telephone line installed. This will require approximately a $00 deposit to have the line installed. By having a business telephone line you are entitled to a business listing in the yellow pages. Also consider an answering machine or answering service for calls that come in during you absence. It is also helpful to send announcements of your business start-up to the media, potential customers and friends. Starting a business is an extremely complex process that is crucial to its success.

Most of the aspects have been covered in the above, but there are many more little things that may need to be considered depending on the uniqueness of the business. There are many helpful sources, which will help an individual obtain information on how he/she should start their own business plans. The better organized an individual goes into a business start up the better prepared they will be for the many complicated decisions that will arise in the future.

Please note that this sample paper on how to incorporate a business is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on how to incorporate a business, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on how to incorporate a business will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!