Analysis of "The Harmful Myth of Asian Superiority"

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Crystal Williams Williams1

Ms. Weston

October 8, 00

Analysis of "The Harmful Myth of Asian Superiority"

Ronald Takaki presents an effective argument in his essay "The

Harmful Myth of Asian Superiority". He begins the essay by stating that the

Asians are a "model minority". He then explains what he means by this.

The Asians, because of their apparent success, are often regarded higher than

other minorities and therefore it puts a wedge between them and other

minorities. However, this model theory is not correct.

Persona Takaki uses history and statistics to prove this and come to

the defense of the Asians. He uses past income reports, population levels of

Asians in the major cities in which they live, and percentages of the poverty

level of Asians in New York City's Chinatown (all of these examples are a

form of logos). The use of these statistics proves to be very effective in

setting up his argument that the Asians are not as superior as they are

thought to be.

The income reports are compared to those of modern Caucasians. The

use of these reports shows to be an effective way to prove that, yes, the

Asians do sometimes have or get more. However, it is because they tend to Williams

have every member of their family working. This is in opposition to that of

the Caucasians, who only usually have one to two members working.

He also uses the Asian employment of the United States to his defense

as well. He proves that the Asians in their own country are usually of high

status and rank. Then after they come to the states, they are often times

demoted and placed in a position of low ranking. This is done all in the

name of getting ahead in the states.

Takaki's authority on this subject first comes from personal

experience (ethos). He is the grandson of agricultural laborers who came

from Japan to the states trying to get ahead. Therefore, he knows first hand

what the struggles are like and what Asians go through to make it and get

ahead in the states. He also gets his authority from being a professor (ethos).

He is a professor at the University of California and holds the position of

professor of ethnic studies. He uses this position very well in this essay. He

has also written other books and essays on the subject of ethnicity.

Title Takaki presents this essay with an interesting title. "The

Harmful Myth of Asian Superiority", provokes one to want to read more. At

first, you want to keep reading to find out his position and to know what is

said or done to the Asians that is causing them pain or hurt. In short, this Williams

title is a kind of hook that Takaki uses to capture his audience to read the

essay.

Thesis The main thesis can be partly found within the title itself and

in the fourth paragraph. The Thesis is that there is a harmful myth about the

Asian Americans and their success in the United States and this myth is a

much-obscured reality.

Purpose The purpose for Takaki writing this essay becomes very

clear. He not only wants to persuade people to try to understand and

sympathize with the reasons and methods behind why the Asians work as

they do; He also wants to educate his readers as well. He wants to educate

us in the facts of the actual income and poverty levels. He proves that what

is perceived of the Asians does not show you the truth. The majority of

Asians in the states are not anywhere near the rank they would be had they

be in their own country. In comparison, it would be like going from master

to servant. However, they still come to the states in hopes of getting ahead.

Method Takaki choose to both give opinion and fact. He uses

mainly facts and statistics as his method to prove that the Asians should not

be viewed as a model. He sets out to prove that the Asians are just another

minority that is working hard to get ahead.

Williams4

Closing In closing Takaki again restates his thesis and position. He

tells that because of this "model theory" there is a wedge between the

minorities, especially the African Americans. I think that he restates this

once again to prove his cause and persuade us to think on the Asians side.

Overall, I think that Ronald Takaki gives a very effective essay. He

uses both logos and ethos in his argument and presents them in such a way

that the information is both believable and persuasive. Through reading this

article you can see right off that this is an intelligent person writing and he is

doing so for a reason. He shows stats and facts that are most time

overlooked or forgotten and shines a light for the Asian communities.

WC 816

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The Cuban Missile CrisisWere Contemporaries correct in regarding President Kennedy as the saviour of the western world after the Cuban Missile crisis?

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The Cuban missile crisis was the most dangerous of the Cold War, but it still involves the two main superpower enemies; Russia and America, only this time Cuba got involved too. The Cold War happened because America was scared that Communism would spread to their democratic West. Russia being the huge superpower in the east was Communist, and after the Russian Revolution, Lenin was planned on making Communism worldwide, this petrified the west. America believed in the Domino Theory, which was that if one country became Communist, then the neighboring countries would soon follow, like dominoes falling down. A good example of this was when China became Communist, soon its neighbour Korea was Communist as well. Russia was worried about America bases in NATO countries in Europe.

There was always competition between Russia and America because they were two superpowers. There was the Arms Race, where both countries competed for newer, stronger weapons than the other. Such as when America developed the A bomb, Russia got the A bomb, America got the H bomb, Russia got the H bomb and so on. They were both trying to out do each other with nuclear weapons, but if one of them used them then it would probably lead to the end of mankind. There was also the Space race, which also involved competition between the two super powers. This time they were competing for people in space, for example, Russia had the first man in space but America had the first man on the moon. The main aim of the Space Race was to develop rocket Technology. By 160 both superpowers had enough nuclear weapons to wipe out each other and everyone else as well. However, they were both still nervous and worried about what would happen if their missiles were destroyed before they had the chance to use them. Both the USA and USSR became worried that nuclear weapons were not the final solution. So both sides come up with their own nuclear deterrent. This would be achieved by making sure that your own side could strike back even after being attacked by nuclear weapons, so The USA then came up with the Polaris missile, which could be fired from nuclear submarines below the surface. This was a great advantage to the USA because it meant that they could fire at Russia without them realizing because it was undetectable. In A it mentions that in 155 the Americans launched a nuclear-powered submarine, which was a major advantage for the USA because it could be cruising at high speeds below the surface for weeks and the enemy would know nothing about it. It also says that not long after the nuclear-powered submarines came the Polaris missiles, which could be fired from below the surface from the submarines. These two things caused a big change in the attitudes of the world leaders. Their main concern now was to prevent nuclear war, and the source says that everything else came second. This Polaris missile changed the whole strategy of the Cold War and the attitudes of the leaders in it.

The island of Cuba lies about 0 miles off the USA coast. From 15 to 15 a dictator ruled it called General Batista, the USA supported him for most of that time. American companies controlled most of Cuba business, so as long as Cuba was at peace American business profited. So the USA supplied Batista with arms. However Batista's rule became more and more brutal so America stopped supplying arms in 157. The USA wanted a more effective government so it encouraged a resistance movement led by Fidel Castro. In 15, Castro overthrew Batista's government and became Cuban president; he had by then become Communist, which worried the Americans at all seen as they had been trying to stop the spread of communism Communism. So the friendly relations between USA and Castro didn't last for long. Castro began a series of reforms, which included nationalizing the industries, which were mostly American. Also, Castro blamed the USA for the island's poverty and sought aid from the USSR. In the past the USA had always bought Cuba's sugar, so when America refused to buy their sugar, the USSR agreed to buy it in return for oil and machinery. All this caught the USA off guard because the USA always saw Castro as non-threatening. A4 states that in America, Castro was virtually unknown and that "American ignorance to the changes he had in mind was one of the reasons for the friction, which later developed between Cuba and America leading to the Bay of Pigs invasion".

When Kennedy took over as American president in 161, he became the youngest ever president. He was told of a CIA plan to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro, which he allowed to go ahead but the result was a disaster, and became known as the Bay of Pigs. On April 17th, about 1500 of Castro's opponents landed at Cochinos Bay (Bay of Pigs) on the southern coasts of Cuba. They were equipped with arms provided by the USA. These rebels had told the CIA that the Cubans would join them and overthrow Castro, unfortunately they did not. The group was poorly trained and badly equipped; even their maps were out of date. They were outnumbered by almost 00 to 1 and within three days the invaders were either dead or in prison. The results of the Bay of Pigs were the opposite of what the CIA had intended. Firstly, Castro became more popular because of how easily the Cuban army had defeated the invaders. Source C1 is a primary source because it is a speech made by Fidel Castro at the funerals of the Cubans killed in the Bay of Pigs. What he is saying is that what the Americans can't stand is that the Cubans have made a revolution right under the American's noses, and they didn't even realise. It is obviously a biased source because it is from Castro, the Cuban president. C is a poster issued by the Cuban government with the phrase "The defence of our country is everybody's duty". This poster is trying to get people to join the Cuban army, and especially after the Bay of Pigs there was a lot of anti-American feeling around. Again this is a primary source because it is taken from the time. Also, Castro now saw the USA as a very serious threat and asked Khrushchev to help defend Cuba. The Bay of Pigs also didn't help Kennedy's reputation as a new president. In a speech he says, "How could I have been so far off base? All my life I've known better than to depend on the experts. How could I have been so stupid to let them go ahead?"

Now that Cuba had the help of Russia, throughout 16 American intelligence kept a watch over Cuba. In the summer, CIA agents reported sightings of Soviet ships heading for the island. In September, the USSR admitted supplying arms to Castro but said that they were only for Cuban defence. This did seem to make sense, because if the USSR was to attack the USA it didn't need to go to Cuba to do it, it could have launched missiles from the bases in the USSR. From B I can see that the missiles placed on Cuba from the USSR had nearly all the major American cities in their strike range, including Washington and New York. Cuban exiles told the CIA agents of convoys of Lorries carrying large objects; others said that they had seen missiles being set up. On 16th October 16, Kennedy received some evidence, which revealed that Khrushchev was lying. An American U- spy plane had flown over Cuba and taken pictures. These pictures showed rocket-launching sites being built on the island. From these sites Cubans would be able to fire atomic missiles at almost any major American city. The big question now was what should Kennedy do?

On October 16th he appointed an Executive Committee to give him advice. The leading figure on the committee was the president's younger brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. The committee narrowed it down to three options. The first was to launch a nuclear strike against the missile sites. The second was launching a conventional air strike, followed by an invasion and the third was initiating a naval blockade that would prevent the Soviets from sending any further material into Cuba. Now Kennedy was a young, inexperienced president and after the Bay of Pigs he really needed to improve his image, so he had to think carefully about what option to choose. In B it says that the majority of the Ex. Comm. wanted a conventional air strike followed by an invasion. However, Robert Kennedy, the president's brother wanted the naval blockade, which would keep out Soviet goods but not force Khrushchev to react immediately. The advantage of the naval blockade, as Robert Kennedy saw it, was that if it didn't work then the pressure could be stepped up. Although the rest of the committee wanted an air strike and invasion, in the end President Kennedy followed his brother's advice and chose to have a naval blockade.

Up until now it seemed that the USSR was winning the Cold war, especially after the Americans had been humiliated when a U- spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. In August 161 the communists had also built the Berlin Wall. Yet again the USA had been embarrassed again in 161 after the Bay of Pigs fiasco. So when President Kennedy appeared on television on October nd and announced the blockade and asked Khrushchev to stop supplying missiles to Cuba he wanted to appear as leader of the West. B4 is a primary source because it is taken from Kennedy's actual televised speech. This source is going to be biased because it is spoken by Kennedy to it is obviously going to be giving an American viewpoint. It is also going to be biased because Kennedy is trying to get global support. In his speech he announces that there will be a naval blockade and "all ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation or port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back". He also says in his speech "I call upon Chairman Khrushchev to halt and eliminate this clandestine, reckless and provocative threat to world peace".

The meaning of Kennedy's speech was obvious; if a Cuban missile was launched then the USA would attack the USSR. On the 4th October, 1 Soviet ships heading for Cuba were either stopped or changed course. On Cuba, work still continued at the missile sites, while in the USA, Kennedy mobilised his troops ready for a possible invasion of Cuba. On the other hand, Russia were looking for a way out of the crisis, Khrushchev sent Kennedy two letters. In his first letter he told Kennedy that he would remove all missiles from Cuba and stop sending weapons there, only if the USA stopped their blockade and do not interfere with Russian ships. In the second letter, Khrushchev stated that the USA had missiles situated in Britain, Italy and most importantly Turkey. He told Kennedy that if the USA remove their missiles from Britain, Italy and Turkey then USSR would remove all missiles from Cuba. Kennedy accepted this deal and the crisis ended on October 8th. The public was told that the USSR had agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba and not install anymore. In fact, Kennedy had struck a secret deal with Khrushchev, so Kennedy removed all the missiles from Turkey six months later and Khrushchev removed all the missiles from Cuba. C5 is a secondary source because it is part of a BBC publication called "Cuba in Crisis 16" written in 184. It is not going to be biased because it is well researched and is not siding with anyone.

Were contemporaries correct in regarding President Kennedy as the saviour of the western world after the Cuban missile crisis? This is the question that I return to. The Crisis when over made Kennedy appear to have come out of the event the hero, but was this idea really fair. By looking at source D1 it shows us exactly what Kennedy wanted, as it is an extract from his inaugural address in January 161. This was the first speech he made as the President of the United States. He states that he would bear any burden so would fight anyone and he would "Support any Friend and oppose an foe" this meaning that he would support an ally like Britain, and would oppose any non ally like Communist Russia, and then he moves on to say that he assures the survival and the success of liberty or freedom. It is a contempary source and favors Kennedy making him look like the good guy, also its is biased as it was Drawn by the Daily Mail a British newspaper and Britain at the time and still is an ally to America. The picture also shows the definite split between Russia and Cuba, and America. It portrays Kennedy wearing white and on the side both Castro and Khrushchev are wearing dark colours; this shows us quite clearly the good and bad sides. Kennedy is the sheriff and Castro and Khrushchev are the outlaws. By looking closely at the picture, in the background you can faintly see the town's people running away probably leading us to believe they are running away in fear of the devastation of nuclear war between Russia, Cuba, and America.

Another contemporary source is D4. This shows Kennedy and Khrushchev on top of a large box and on the side is written Nuclear War, it shows Kennedy and Khrushchev, trying to contain the Nuclear War, and shows us how scared the both of them actually were. This source surprises me in that it has been written by an American, as it is an extract from an American cartoon, and shows both Kennedy and Khrushchev, this shows us that the source is impartial, and that it gives credit to both of them. This however is the first time we see Kennedy and Khrushchev, in the same picture, and sharing the glory of being the saviours of ending this crisis. It is also noticeable that Khrushchev did play a fairly large part in stopping The Cuban Missile Crisis.

The last two sources are probably the most important of all the sources available. D, is a secondary source, and our first one, it was actually written about the Bay of Pigs, mentioning the plans on how the overthrow of Castro were going to be carried out by Cuban exiles, but consequently when the presidency changed in 161 to Kennedy he inherited a policy which he himself had not initiated but he carried on with it. This shows how young Kennedy actually was when he first became President he was the youngest president America had ever had, and it shows clearly his inexperience. In a way you can't blame Kennedy for what he did, as he didn't come up with the idea Eisenhower did. According to D the Americans lost all possibilities of a more positive approach

Finally, source D5 (another secondary source) this is an extract written by Tony Howarth, and taken from a book called "Twentieth Century History, The world since 100". This is the source that believes that it was both Kennedy and Khrushchev that were the saviours. This extract starts off by looking at views made by the people at the time of the Crisis, which was that Kennedy was the hero. Looking back in hindsight it gives a picture of a longer term result, and gives a different view of Kennedy, as to that the world had at the time, a majority of these views claimed that Kennedy was the hero, however Fidel Castro is still at present the president of Cuba, and is adored by its citizens. Also according source D5, Kennedy and Khrushchev realized that at the brink of war they had no means of fast communication with each other, so in June 16 their two Governments agreed to set up a hotline, a direct communication system link between the white house and the Kremlin, it was created to prevent any further crises. The actions taken by both Kennedy and Khrushchev illustrate that they were both reluctant to go to war as when Kennedy set up the blockade, Khrushchev ordered his ships to stop at the blockade, to prevent anything happening.

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Do You Think?

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Do you think? When was the last time you really sat down and thought about something? Was it a few minutes ago or

a few months ago? Our society is so reliant on someone else thinking for them that we have become a co-dependent

culture.

Did you watch the news today? Was some guy on a killing spree? A serial killer. Did you ever wonder if they felt any

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mercy for the person as they killed them, each one of them? Or maybe they were merciless and they felt nothing. Or

maybe, just maybe, they are a figment of your imagination.

Did you wake up this morning or are you still dreaming? Or are you possibly in a computer generated and controlled

world that will keep you there until you wake up, like in the movie the Matrix?

Are people fond of you or do people hate you? Maybe as you were walking past that person this morning and you said

hi and they smiled and waved back, they were just doing it to make you go away. Or maybe they have a crush on

you. Maybe, in the middle of that movie you were watching in English class, there was a subliminal message that said

"FOOD" and so you thought you were hungry.

Is there really an afterlife or do you just die and cease to exist? A Heaven? A Hell? ANd ghosts. Are they there? Are

they what give you the shivers when you're waking up in the middle of the night, wondering if someone is lurking

around the corner? ALiens? Do they exist or are they just some media generated piece of America's collection of

dreams? If they do exist, are they of higher level of intelligence, lower, or the same? Would they be out to harm us, be

friendly, or just be like us? Would they be us? Maybe they have blue skin, twenty tentacles on their head, and purple

hair. Or maybe they look just like us and exist in some far corner of the universe. And, yes, the universe. Have you

ever thought about how far the universe goes? Does it ever end? Maybe if one went far enought they'd reach some

place of being beyond a human's comprehension? Wormholes also referred to as "black holes" ; there is a theory that

states that if someone were to be sucked into one that they would be "speghettified" meaning that they would be

stretched into an impossible length to be accomplished on earth. If they were to also be sucked through to the other

end, would they end up at another place in time, maybe 100.000 years in the future or 200,000 years in the past?

Black holes have such a strong gravitational force that they suck light away. Where does the light go?

Where do all the missing socks in the dryer go? If you could go back to being a baby in your mother's womb, would you

be able to realize what was going on and would you remember it for the rest of your life or for a short period of time?

If you went back in time to the age of two years, by the time you got to the age of 16, would you be any smarter? Or

would everything simply be remedial? Just a thought for those of you out there who haven't really sat down and had a

good thought today...

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Women's Strength

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The book My Antonia by Willa Cather by many critics defined it as being outwardly feministic and not conforming to gender roles, but could we really get the sense of the characters roles and relationships if they werent feminine. No, I dont think so. When the book was written Willa Cather was living in the time period when womens rights was a highly debated topic and perhaps thats the reason for the why the characters seemed too feminine or why her female characters were strong women. Although she was amongst the one of the first generation settlers in the Mid-West that didnt mean the issues did not affect her. In My Antonia, the stereotypical town-girls are considered weak- and are incapable of doing anything but take care of a family and cook whether that be their parents home or their husbands home. Jims quote supports this. He states All the young men felt the attraction of the fine, well-set-up country girls who had come to town to earn a living, and, in nearly every case, to help their fathers struggle out of debt or to make it possible for the younger children of the family to go to school. (Pg 17) This basically is saying that girls back then were hopeless and needed men to save them. In Willa Cathers case, she didnt assign gender roles to her characters. Because she didnt assign gender roles to characters certain of them stuck out like Frances Harling, Antonia Shimerda, and Lena Lenigard. What did all of these characters have in common? They were females that played both male and female roles in their every day lives. I guess there is no better way to say it than Roseanne Barrs quote, which states The thing that women have to learn is that nobody gives you power. You just take it. These women were not going to be conformed into the image of society women, they had their own mind and were going to stick to that.

The grown up daughter, Frances was a very important person in our world. She was her fathers chief clerk, and virtually managed his Black Hawk office during frequent absences. Because of her unusual business ability, he was stern and exacting with her. He paid her good salary...even Sundays she went to the office to open the mail and read the markets.(pg.7) This quote basically flat-out says Frances Harling was a very independent woman who was capable of doing anything for herself. The fact that her father would even pay her wages meant that that she was capable or probably more capable of doing the same job as a guy. With that in mind, then its safe to say that Frances is not weak or poor women that has to be married off or someone incapable of doing anything. That defies the position of women in society.

Another person just like her but not in the city environment was Antonia Shimerda. She lived in the country were she housed a dozen children. Her husband who was always off working which therefore let her the man of the house or lets say woman of the house. Because of that, she took on the responsibility of the man and had to work the fields and tend to the animals (just like when her father was gone and she was given that same job). Again, we are introduced to a female character capable of doing a mans job. She worked just as hard as a man would have for Jim states, Antonia came in and stood before me; a stalwart, brown woman, flat-chested, her curly brown hair a little grizzled...She was there, in the vigour of her personality, battered but not diminished, looking at me. (pg.14) She not only took the beatings of a man but had to deal with the harsh weathers as well. Again, (although she was amongst society people) Antonia is not considered as the ideal female of society.

Lena Lenigard went from the adventurous, heart breaking, and rebel-type hired girl to a sophisticated businesswoman. After, learning how to tailor Lena went on her own. She left Black Hawk to start her own business in Lincoln (which was another dressmaking company). Starting a business in the late 1th century was all right but not for a woman. Lena Lenigard was breaking the code of a traditional society female. She was in a big city and unmarried and working all hours. A society woman went to bed the same night every night and woke up the same time everyday. They had a daily routine, which they went by and went from their parents house straight to their husbands. There was no room for working that was the husbands job. Once more, we are introduced to females taking on the role of a man.

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In My Antonia by Willa Cather, the characters dont take on a gender role put worth by society therefore we get more in depth analysis of each character and where they have been through. Because of that some of the characters for example Frances Harling, Antonia Shimerda, and Lena Lenigard dont conform to the ways of the females in the society. They arent weak and for sure dont lack confidence. These women are women that are strong, have a lot of confidence and are capable of doing any mans job anytime.

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Savage Transformation

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Savage Reformation

Living in any environment and society that keeps up with modern civilization needs to keep up with the education plan. The United States whose government was comprised mostly of whites from different regions of Europe during its early years, began to emerge as one of the leading countries in the world, especially with advantage of location in western hemisphere. It had distinct government system that wanted to promote education among all whites. In 1865, the end of civil war, which lasted for four prolonged dreaded years, brought emancipation from slavery to black population allowing black people to attend schools and gain public knowledge. It is different story with American Indians, however, people who had lived on this continent for several millenniums developing its own systems of education necessary for survival. Once white people "discovered New World" they strived to convert Indian nations to European standards of living continuing to present days.

One way American government perceived to convert or to change Indians is by acquiring rights to their children through schooling, which was located off of Indian reservations.

The word was civilization. Europe and America considered their societies civilized up to times; Indian tribes on reservations, on the other hand, were viewed as savage nations. European nations who began to populate North America and early Government of this country differed in culture and ways of living from Indians, simply considered these nations less civilized. White nation emigrating from Europe, conquering the continent, forming government of the U.S., and considering themselves as great philanthropists, sought how to civilize local population to adopt ways of white culture. The idea of civilization embodied the minds of legislators of this country who stated that "the progress of conversion was inevitable and desirable, for civilization, especially Christian civilization, which gave expression to man's noblest sentiments," according to David Wallace (Wallace 1).

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The commencement of education was initiated when the first settlers, after establishing small towns along the east coast of the colonial America, perceived and sought ways to teach local population to acquire white culture. Both cultures differed greatly in economic, social, and political structures as well as religions, but the new comers did not want to consider these facts and, rather, proceeded with conversion. European nations exerted differing approaches to and influences upon the Native Americans. For instance, the Franciscans, mainly Spanish origin, entered the south, influencing the peoples of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and California. The policy of the Franciscans was to gather the native peoples into villages around missions. The schools, while teaching Spanish, did not emphasize the academic subjects, placing greater stress upon agriculture, carpentry, blacksmith work, masonry, spinning, and weaving( to living on this earth ). King James, who sent his settlers to the shores of North America, established Darmouth for the purpose to educate local Indians of white man's ways.

Later, after American Revolution and formation of the U.S. government, education was influenced by the great religious awakening which took place in the new nation in early 1800s. In 181, congress, at the request of President Monroe, passed an act which apportioned funds among those societies and individuals that had been prominent in the effort to "civilize" the Indians(5).

After massive removal of almost all Indian tribes from east coast, ordered and carried out by President Jackson who signed Indian Removal Act of 180, attention toward Indians cooled off especially with the Civil War and its recovery. However, with the western expansion, government began to investigate Indian issues and oppress the natives. As a result, some reservation schools emerged in early 1870 and were placed right on the reservation being under strict supervision of agent in charge

In 188 several reformers went west to explore situation in tribes, and as soon as they came back from journey, firmly proposed two conclusions first, educational reform is needed in order for Indians to assimilate into mainstream of American life; and second; firm reaction and will for government to implement the first. A new reform organization was formed called Indian Right Association which sought ways to "improve" the life of Indians and to prepare the way for their absorption into the common life of American people. Other organizations evolved as well who showed their interest in solving Indian problems and issues that arose at that time, which included education. Some advocates insisted that Indian children would attend public schools along with non-native kids aiming to "culturize" tribes quicker than through any other way.

Finally it came to conclusion that it would be better if the children would be sent to schools off of reservations, which would increase chances for social evolution among American Indians. One of the commissioners of Indian Affairs Thomas J. Morgan had come to conclusion stating, "a good school may thus bridge over for them the dreary chasm of a thousand years of tedious evolution" (Adams 1). According to the same source, "schooling, if promised to do anything, promised to prepare Indians for economic self-efficiency." One advocate even stated that it would be "cheaper to educate rather to kill and Indian" (Adams 0). It seems that Indians were the main source of white man's problems that even murdering all of them went through the mind as an option. Education was harsh decision by whites to deal with this problem, but excessive force was not inevitable to transform Indian mind. In 18 Department of Interior along with BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) became responsible for Indian education. School advocates were pressing an issue that American Indians can be assimilated with white culture only through enforcing education. Consideration for off-reservation seems bringing hope for the change of Indians, but it would bring segregation from the rest of the society. Advocates of off-reservation boarding schools looked at the issue differently stating "The ultimate rationale for the off-reservation school lay in its capacity to integrate students into the civilized community beyond the school's walls through the so-called outing system."

Off-reservation schools began to emerge east and west, wherever government had a chance to do so. Even though Indians wanted education for their children, but they did not want to accomplish it by of off-reservation schools. Old abandoned army forts were converted into boarding schools, children were removed-sometimes forcibly-long distances from their homes, the use of Indian languages by children was forbidden under threat of corporal punishment, students were boarded out to white families during vacation times, and native religions were suppressed. By 10 around twenty five boarding schools opened in approximately fifteen states including California, and attendance exceeded twenty thousand Indian students.

The establishment of off-reservation schools for Indian education was not the only incentive for the U.S government. Many legislators have figure out how much these schools will help economy to spring due to more consumption of goods purchased from markets of nearby towns. White teachers and other type of workers could contribute to town's economy by working in schools and enabling towns to grow financially. It seems like a small factor for the purpose of Indian education, but to strengthen economy in small towns by bringing off-reservation schools would be capable to give firm basis for the establishment.

The schools continued its strong existence up to 14 when Indians received their citizenship of the United States and following by Meriam Report that came out in 1, did the reservation schools began to convert into public schools. Off-reservation boarding schools were reduced in number and some of them were shut down due to political changes toward Indian policy. The citizenship promoted education in public schools with the rest of the children of American society. Changes came once more with the end of World War II where Indian children were encouraged to attend off-reservation schools due to rapid changes in U.S. economy promising to prepare children to be better prepared for the acceptance and assimilation into modern world.

With the off-reservation boarding schools Indian children had to go through changes that left scars in their young souls. As known, on reservation schools had many advantages over off-reservation schools. Of course on reservation schools children were in school all day long acquiring knowledge about white culture, but the problem was with religion. Indians were practicing their religious acts and rituals on their reservations wanting and longing to pass on cultural traditions including religion on to their inheritance-children. Teacher and school administration were strictly against any traditional religions and school curriculum imposed Christianity as a religion. In many instances it became forceful where children were forced to memorize verses and chapters out of Holy Scriptures. The only relief these children received was in the evening when they were allowed to return home for overnight and see their closed ones. Enrollment was mandatory at all times and only during vacations could children stay at home at all time. However, to accelerate the process of conversion, President Grant stated that removal from home and tribe was viewed as necessary for the elimination of Indian identity and, therefore, the Indian Problem (Fuchs 4).

However, by the late 180s, these schools were closed by the federal government and the education of Indians came under the control of a paternalistic government. Government wanted full control of lives of Indian children to

When off-reservation board schools first initiated for Indian young generation, many of the children were forcefully taken away from their homes, off reservations into old abandoned structures that served as warehouses or military barracks having inadequate sanitary conditions according to standards of that time. Boys and girls were not taught together and were separated physically. Up on arrival to reservation schools it was mandatory to change Indian names to something European i.e, children were assigned white names and had to use them every day. They were discouraged to use their real names among each other and in case a teacher heard the use of real names among student they would punish those giving tasks like cleaning restrooms.

Some children were lured into off reservation schools by white people who would describe the world in colored terms and stating facts of some Indian children that already had experience in off-boarding schools. Since Indians were isolated from the main world and its culture, the stories told by other children who came off reservation boarding schools would bring the excitement to other kids by sharing their first experience of seeing the world. For instance, Polingaysi Qoyawayma, from Hopi tribe, tells a story about herself, how she was attracted to off-reservation boarding school by her friend, who shared her experience on similar off-reservation school. Polingaysi's friend explained what they did in schools including that they had a children's playground where they played with the ball. However, the other activities included making traditional Indian things such making plaque. Polingaysi was so inspired that she jumped and went to her mother asking her to teach plaque-making (51).

As noted before, children on reservation were forced into schools by white administrators who ran these schools. Many children were not allowed to see their parents for days, and only on weekends they had a chance to come home. When children were brought to off-reservation schools, against their will, boys and girls were cut off their long hair, first sign indicating that they should forget their culture. Girls were affected the most since hair was their pride and beauty.

As far as parents, it was hard for them to accept the fact that their children were somewhere else, not home. Can you imagine, as a parent, government having custody of your kids? I don't think it is imaginable because today we have a lot of lawsuits where divorced parents want to have custody of their kids fighting legal battle just to hold on to that right. Indian families, however, were deprived of the right to fight government and to declare dependence of their children. I hope we can see that even Indian reservations had some sovereignty, but it was limited even with essential things like custody of children. As any other culture, Indian tribes wanted to pass on heritage to future generation, but with education policy they were stripped of any rights to teach cultural or religious values. Again, upon arrival to off-reservation schools children were assigned European names and were forbidden to practice any Indian traditions including talking in their native language. The government claim was that Indian children will be provided social welfare where they would receive new clothing, sufficient food, laundry services, and a warm place to stay and learn which obviously would be available on the reservation due to economic poverty (Fuchs 0). Of course many parents were glad that at least their children were properly nourished in schools, and therefore, would sent their pupils to reservation schools.

The separation of children from the parents, according to psychiatrist Dr. Robert Leon, would have physiological damage to young minds. He stated," The damage caused to the child by his/her separation is directly related to the child's age and the length of time that he/she is separated from the parents." He claims the damage occurs due to loneliness and feel of rejection, since most of the children who were taken from their homes were of age five to eight. For older kids it was matter of privacy, since facilities were small comparing to the number of attendees. This forced children to be crammed into one tiny room, with very limited space for personal belongings. Later, after World War II these schools became understaffed with less supervision and counseling for young teens. The lack of mentors in these schools caused more problems.

Many children were not allowed to see their parents during vacations; instead they were placed within white families. The life style of white Americans had its toil on young people. For instance, alcoholism was dominant vice in white families, which caused domestic disputes and Indian children were vulnerable to these scenes saturating and spoiling their young minds, later causing same problems among the Indian families. As a matter of fact, alcoholism dominated and thrived among many reservations due to acceptance of white ways.

The effects of reservation schools had its imprints on current generation of Indians. Caroline King's mother attended one of the off-reservation boarding schools and was placed into white family where she cleaned the house, and while she was there, a man abused her. "It brought problems into my family that weren't there before," she said. "After what happened, it became much easier for my mother to get angry. And that's something we? my sisters and brothers? dealt with the whole time we were growing up." As we can see sexual abuse was dominant toward Indian girls who live off reservations and there was nothing they could've done to protect themselves from these despicable acts.

Boarding schools continued their existence up to 174 when President reinstated the self-determination of tribes allowing parents to decide on education for their children.

Education only brought extermination, of what was once known as great race. Currently, many tribes are working to reestablish their culture and heritage, participate in Indian affairs and bring important issues that pertain to Indian culture. Many organizations are working closely with legislature to gain more sovereignty for their tribes. But past will never be wiped off from the minds of Indians leaving deep scar that will stay there forever throughout generations. It was one of the government's acts to civilize "savages," which had significant damages to these cultures; nevertheless, they survived and gradually will recover to thrive once more as the great nation in the United States.

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