Invisable Man - Black Leaders

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At the time that Ralph Ellison writes the novel The Invisible Man there were, as there are today, many ideas on how to improve the black mans status in a segregated nation. Marcus Garvey was a militant black nationalist leader who created a "Back to Africa" movement. On the other side was Booker T. Washington who preached for racial uplift through educational attainments and economic advancement. A man who strayed more on the middle path was W.E.B. Du Bois. He was less militant than Marcus Garvey but was more so than Booker T. Washington. Ellison uses characters from the novel to represent these men. Marcus Garvey is fictionalized as Ras the Exhorter. Booker T. Washington is given voice by the Reverend Barbee. W.E.B. Du Bois is never directly mentioned in the novel. However, the actions and thoughts of W.E.B. Du Bois are very similar to that of the narrator. While all three men were after the same dream they all went about making that dream reality in different ways. There are strengths and weakness that can be found in all three men's philosophies.

The most militant and extreme of the three was Garvey. Marcus Garvey was born Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr. on August 17 1887, at Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica. He was the youngest of eleven children. His father, Malcus (Marcus) Mosiah Garvey, was a stonemason and his mother, Sarah Jane Richards, was a domestic servant and produce grower. He left school at the age of fourteen to serve as a printer's apprentice. After completing his training he took a job with a printing company in Kingston. There he organized and led a strike for higher wages. He then traveled to Central and South America. He moved to London in 11 and became interested in African history and culture. He returned to Jamaica two years later and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and the African Communities League. The UNIA helped found the Black Muslim movement. In 116 Garvey moved to the United States. He went to New York City and set up a branch of the UNIA and began a weekly newspaper called the Negro World. Garvey preached that blacks should be proud of who they are. He called for racial pride. Because of his persuasiveness and his eloquence people started to listen to Garvey. Blacks became proud of who they were. Booker T. Washington said to bow down to the whites and accept being inferior. When they heard Garvey say he was proud of his race and his heritage they listened to him. The black community gathered around him and accepted his message. Here was a man who was happy to be black not only happy but also proud. Garvey's racial pride movement helped the Harlem Renaissance. Blacks started to express their feelings and thoughts through art and music. This was a time when whites really took a look at black art and culture. Garvey's most extreme movement was the "Back to Africa" movement. He called all blacks to return to their true homeland, Africa. To help make this possible Garvey created the Black Star Line in 11 to provide transportation. He also started the Negro Factories Corporation to encourage black economic independence. Garvey attracted thousands of supporters and had two million members for the UNIA. Garvey's rise to fame was amazing; speaking to an audience in Colon, Panama in 11 Garvey said "two years ago in New York nobody paid any attention to us. When I use to speak, even the policeman on the beat never noticed me." Depending on whom you talked to Garvey was the new Moses of blacks or a complete madman. In "After Marcus Garvey---What?" an article in Contemporary Review, Kelly Miller writes that

Marcus Garvey came to the U.S. less than ten years ago, unheralded, unfriended, without acquaintance, relationship, or means of livelihood. This Jamaican immigrant was thirty years old, partially educated, and 100 per cent black. He possessed neither comeliness of appearance nor attractive physical personality. Judged by external appraisement, there was nothing to distinguish him from thousands of West Indian black people who flock to our seaport cities. And yet this ungainly youth by sheer indomitability of will projected a propaganda and commanded a following, within the brief space of a decade, which made the whole nation mark him and write his speeches in their books. (4)

Robert Bagnall in his 1 article in Messenger said, "We may seriously ask, is not Marcus Garvey a paranoiac?" W.E.B. Du Bois in a psychological assessment said Garvey is suffering from "very serious defects of temperament and training," and described him as "dictatorial, domineering, inordinately vain and very suspicious."

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Just as Garvey was at the climax of his following he encountered some economic disasters. In 1 he was arrested for mail fraud and served prison time. His sentence was dropped and he was deported back to Jamaica. He was forgotten and could not win back his supporters. He moved and finally died in London in relative obscurity.

Garvey's racial pride movement helped the black community accept who they were. Before others can accept you, you must learn to accept yourself first. The "Back to Africa" movement was too radical and extreme. Although he did have quite a following, many people did not like the idea. Only a few thousand blacks actually went back to Africa. Garvey's ideas seem to evade the problem, which is segregation. Garvey is saying we can't stop segregation so lets just move back to Africa.

The second black leader was a soft-spoken man named Booker T. Washington. The black child known simply as Booker was born a slave on a farm in Franklin County, Virginia. He chose the last name Washington when he attended school and later learned that his real last name was Taliaferro. He lived a typical slave boy life; he did what his master told him to do. Although he had no education during his time in slavery he was smart enough to know he needed more food, clothes, and love. He later recalls that he had no ill feelings toward his white master. This thought would be the idea that Booker would later preach in his life. With the coming of the Emancipation Proclamation he was set free at the age of eight. Booker had a desire to get himself an education. He was accepted at Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. He paid for his education by working as a janitor. After graduation he taught at Malden for two years and studied in Washington D.C. He then became an instructor at Hampton and taught Native Americans and founded a night school. He was then hired to start a school in the city of Tuskegee, Alabama. He built the school up from a shack to an institution of more than forty buildings. Booker T. didn't think teaching blacks how to read and write and memorize from books would really help them. Booker instead taught how to live in a white society. He taught them how to use a tooth bush and how to bathe properly. In the process of building his school he became known for his speaking ability. On September 18, 185, in Atlanta Georgia, Booker made his famous speech. He told blacks that they should accept their inferior social positions. He went on to say that blacks should improve themselves through vocational training and economic independence. This passive stance pleased many whites, because Booker had gained so much respect the black community accepted what he said. The more militant W.E.B. Du Bois objected to such a quiescent approach and strongly opposed Booker. Before he died Booker founded several organizations and wrote several books. He died on November 14, 115, at Tuskegee.

Booker's strong point is that he told blacks that they should get a better education; they should better themselves. Better themselves? What about bettering their position in life? What good does it do to have an education if you can't get a job because of the color of your skin! While Garvey was too extreme, Booker was too laid back. If you don't protest against the status quo then nothing will happen to change it.

The third leader was a man who borrowed a little from both Marcus Garvey and Booker T. Washington. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. He was a descendant of African American, French, and Dutch ancestors. He was extremely gifted even at an early age and graduated from high school at the age of sixteen. He was the valedictorian and the only black in his graduating class of twelve. He was abandoned after his graduation and was forced to pay for his college education by himself. He gained a scholarship to Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. At college he finally understood the problem that faced Southern blacks. Growing up Du Bois had never encountered racism. However, at college he kept hearing of the growing number of racial related violence. The desire to help improve the lives of all blacks grew. Du Bois graduated from Fisk and was accepted at Harvard where he had to enroll as an undergraduate. He attained his second BA in 180, his MA and finally his Ph.D. in 185, becoming the first black to attain that degree at Harvard. Du Bois then went on to study the historical and sociological conditions of blacks. His research was published in a series of articles and books. In 187 Du Bois made a speech on the condition of black society he said, "One feels his two-ness an American, a Negro, two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings, two warring ideals in one dark body." With his book The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois openly challenged Booker T. Washington, who was then the most respected and influential black in America. Du Bois did not like Booker T. stance on compromise and accommodation. In 105 Du Bois helped organize the Niagara Movement, which led the way for the formation the National Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP was a group of men who were opposed to the ideals of Booker T. Washington. They named Du Bois as one of the founding officers in 110. Because of his essays on lynching, his positions on the war, and his criticisms of Marcus Garvey, Du Bois gained respect. The head officers of the NAACP were all white. The organization then took a stance that blacks should integrate with whites. Du Bois left the organization, which he helped found, because he was unwilling to advocate racial integration in all aspects of life, a position that was adopted by the NAACP. Du Bois' idea was that blacks should join together, separate from whites, and start businesses and industries that would allow blacks to advance economically. He felt that if whites and blacks were to join then the blacks would be taken advantage of. Du Bois wanted equality with the whites; he did not want racial integration with them though. After he left he wrote many books and fought for world peace and nuclear disarmament. In an act of rebellion he joined the American Communist Party and moved to Ghana. In Ghana he denounced his American citizenship and became a citizen of Ghana. Du Bois lived to the age of ninety-five.

Du Bois' ideals were a blend of both Booker T. and Garvey. Like Garvey, Du Bois wanted to have no part in racial integration. Du Bois also thought that education and economic independent was important for the advancement of black society. Du Bois' ideas were not too radical nor were they too subtle. Du Bois criticized Garvey's black power movement and he looked down upon Booker for having such an emphasis on economic independence. Du Bois only fault, like Garvey, was in his belief in racial separation. He would not compromise with whites.

During the civil rights movements, individuals and organizations challenged segregation and discrimination with a variety of activities. In the forefront of these movements were Marcus Garvey, Booker T. Washington, and W.E.B. Du Bois. All three of these men had a dream of equality; they lead the way for future leaders such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Marcus Garvey preached for racial pride among his people and told them to return to Africa. Booker T. Washington told his followers to accept the status quo and improve themselves through hard work and economic independence. W.E.B. Du Bois told the black community to separate themselves from whites and to gain economic self-reliance. All three men went after the same goal; they just did it in their own ways. There is a thin line between doing nothing and doing too much

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Angelas ashes

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Angelas Ashes

Angelas Ashes is an exciting book to read. With every turn of a page something new is happening. The setting of the novel is very important and influences many of the events. The main characters are very different and unique in there own ways. The novel is rather simple to read and not too hard to understand.

Angelas Ashes is set in the late 10's and 140's. It takes place only years after Ireland had gained its independence from Britain in 11 (except Northern Ireland) ( Gordon). Therefore in the book they blame a lot of their problems on the British and what they did to them for so long. Many of their houses were old and dilapidated. Many of the poor children wore raggy clothing but there were also some well to do families, whose children dressed nicely. Some of the men had habits of spending their dole money before in the local pubs instead of taking it home to their families. When they talk they use a lot of slurred or slang words which we do a lot of now a days.

The setting influenced their personalities a little bit. When they were up in "Italy" they were all happy together. It was warm and comforting up there. Not like down stairs in Ireland where it was wet and damp. Franks mood changed quite a lot depending on where he was. When he was out in the country he was happy and felt at peace. He had realised why is father liked to take those long walks in the country.

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In the novel some of the events that could happen in real life are, how the dad drinks the dole money and saves none for his starving family. How three of there children (Margaret, Eugene, and Oliver) die. Also how Frank got typhoid fever and was in the hospital for many months. How he ran away to go live with Uncle Pat, and how he went back to America in the end. The whole book is basically a flashback but he writes it in present tense as though all the events were just happening to him. The climax of the novel is when Frank goes to see the priest and he clears him of all his sins so he could go to America with a clear mind. The only thing that seems unsatisfactory to me is that the do not mention anything else about the dad.

The main characters in the novel are Frank, Angela, and Malachy Mcourt. Frank is very intelligent and responsible. He feels a need to support his family because his father does not. Malachy is the father of Frank. He is very proud. He doesn't like them going to dock road to get coal, or when they had a pig's head for christmas, he didn't think It was a proper meal for christmas dinner. Angela is a very humorous loving mother who sacrifices her pride to get food and clothing for her children. All the characters are real people because it's a memoir, but the dad seems a lot like a stereotype because he is a proud Irish dad who drinks a lot. The characters in the book are static characters; they remain the same throughout the book. Franks strengths are that he is very independent and intelligent. His weakness' are that he is too sensitive and is physically weak and prone to sickness. Angelas strength is her love for her children her weakness is her husband. Malachys strength is pride and his weakness is his alcoholism.

The main reason for writing this novel was to criticize. The key point of the novel was to tell of the struggles of his childhood. The river Shannon was a symbol of sickness but it was also a symbol of a way out of Ireland.

The writing in this novel is simple; here is an example paragraph. "Mam is friendly with Bridey Hannon, who lives next door with her mother and father. Mam and Bridey talk all the time. When my father goes for his long walk Bridey comes in and she and Mam sit by the fire drinking tea and smoking cigarettes. If Mam has nothing in the house Bridey brings tea, sugar and milk. Sometimes they use the same tea leaves over and over and Mam says the tea is stewed, coddled, and boiled." The vocabulary of the story is very simple. "I'm thirteen going on fourteen and its June, the last month of school forever. Mam takes me to see the priest, Dr. Cowpar, about getting a job as a telegram boy. The supervisor in the postoffice, Mrs. O'Connell, says, Do you know how to cycle, and I lie that I do. She says I can't start till im fourteen so come back in August." I think the title fits really well because it's about how Angelas whole life is crumbling to ashes.

All and all this was a great book. It gave a very vivid picture of the poor town of limerick and all the people that lived there. The characters were real and life like. The events that happened to Frank McCourt are very likely to happen to anyone else. The writing was extremely simple and easy to read, the words just flow through your head. The book was great.

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Media Violence

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Media violence does not cause children to be violent. If a child is angry, violent movies, television shows, and negative lyrics in music merely add fuel to an already smoldering fire. A violent world contributes to violent children, but is not the cause. That is not to say that television, movies, music, and video games do not hold a tremendous power to influence. They do, and in that respect, they can share the blame, but we must not overlook the deeper cause of violent children, which is an increasing lack of nurturing adult involvement. It is also true that while guns facilitate the act of killing, guns do not create the mindset for the action.

Without question, media violence contributes to the breakdown of inhibitions. The sheer repetition of killing seen on television and in movies, desensitizes our youth, and increases the likelihood that someone will gravitate towards a gun to settle a conflict. But the person has to have a pre-disposition to kill. The issue at hand, which can not be over-emphasized enough, is that we are raising children to have such a disposition. Murderers are trained.

Searching for answers, the world may be quick to find a scapegoat within the media. This would take the blame and ultimate responsibility away from parents, allowing them to continue life as usual. As we have said, to fix their children, they have to fix themselves. This explains why the country is banding together, placing the blame on everything violent outside of the home. It is much more difficult to acknowledge the violence (physical, sexual, verbal abuse, neglect and domination) within the home. How many parents made changes in their homes after Columbine? And if they did, were they long-lasting? Are parents still spending far too much time submerged in their work and away from their families? Are they sincerely interacting and listening to their children?

Currently we are allowing Government interference because no one knows how to handle the problem of violent youth. The American government is all too eager to take charge. President Clinton spearheaded an anti-school-violence campaign. The first mandate was to order a government investigation of how the entertainment business markets violence to children. Clinton said, Our children are being fed a dependable daily dose of violence. And it sells, adding The boundary between fantasy and reality in terms of violence -- which is a clear line for most adults -- can become very blurred for vulnerable children. Clinton sited that thirty years of studies have documented that by the time a typical American child turns eighteen, he or she has seen forty thousand play murders and two hundred thousand dramatized acts of violence.

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Furthermore, how many times have you gone to the movies and seen very young children attending a violent movie with their parents? These adults take their kids with them to see a PG 1, or even R rated film, because it is the film the parent wants to see. The two hours are filled with guns, bombs, sex and vulgar language. Why do parents do this? Mainly for their own convenience, and because they do not care what goes into the minds of their children. If they did, they wouldnt take their kids to see such films. The message kids take away is that their parents are more concerned with their own entertainment. What really hurts them is the indifference of their parents, not the guns, violence, and vulgarity.

Violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs.

Thats the word from a 18 report by the National Institute of Mental Health, a report that confirmed and extended an earlier study done by the Surgeon General. As a result of these and other research findings, the American Psychological Association passed a resolution in February 185 informing broadcasters and the public of the potential dangers that viewing violence on television can have for children.

What Does the Research Show?

Psychological research has shown three major effects of seeing violence on television

Children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others

Children may be more fearful of the world around them

Children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others.

Children who watch a lot of TV are less aroused by violent scenes than are those who only watch a little; in other words, theyre less bothered by violence in general, and less likely to see anything wrong with it. One example in several studies, those who watched a violent program instead of a nonviolent one were slower to intervene or to call for help when, a little later, they saw younger children fighting or playing destructively.

Studies by George Gerbner, Ph.D., at the University of Pennsylvania, have shown that childrens TV shows contain about 0 violent acts each hour and also that children who watch a lot of television are more likely to think that the world is a mean and dangerous place.

Children often behave differently after theyve been watching violent programs on TV. In one study done at Pennsylvania State University, about 100 preschool children were observed both before and after watching television; some watched cartoons that had a lot of aggressive and violent acts in them, and others watched shows that didnt have any kind of violence. The researchers noticed real differences between the kids who watched the violent shows and those who watched nonviolent ones.

Children who watch the violent shows, even just funny cartoons, were more likely to hit out at their playmates, argue, disobey class rules, leave tasks unfinished, and were less willing to wait for things than those who watched the nonviolent programs, says Aletha Huston, Ph.D., now at the University of Kansas.

Real-Life Studies

Findings from the laboratory are further supported by field studies which have shown the long-range effects of televised violence. Leonard Eron, Ph.D., and his associates at the University of Illinois, found that children who watched many hours of TV violence when they were in elementary school tended to also show a higher level of aggressive behavior when they became teenagers. By observing these youngsters until they were 0 years old, Dr. Eron found that the ones whod watched a lot of TV when they were eight years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults.

A Continuing Debate

In spite of this accumulated evidence, broadcasters and scientists continue to debate the link between the viewing TV violence and childrens aggressive behavior. Some broadcasters believe that there is not enough evidence to prove that TV violence is harmful. But scientists who have studied this issue say that there is a link between TV violence and aggression, and in 1, the American Psychological Associations Task Force on Television and Society published a report that confirms this view. The report, entitled Big World, Small Screen The Role of Television in American Society, shows that the harmful effects of TV violence do exist.

Does media violence promote violent behavior?

Since 155, about 1,000 studies, reports, and commentaries concerning the impact of television violence have been published. The accumulated research clearly demonstrates a correlation between viewing violence and aggressive behavior.

That statement, made by the American Psychological Association in 1, summarized its comprehensive review of research on the effects of media violence. Other organizations including the American Medical Association, National Institutes of Mental Health, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control came to similar conclusions.

One key study that showed the connection between media violence and real violence was the one by Dr. Leonard D. Eron. He followed a group of young people for years and found that those who watched more television at age eight were more likely, at age 0, to have committed more serious crimes, to be more aggressive when drinking, and to punish their children more harshly than others. Others have repeated Erons study and found similar results throughout the United States and other countries as well.

Another researcher, University of Washington epidemiologist Brandon Centerwall, surveyed young male felons imprisoned for committing violent crimes. Between one-quarter and one-third reported having consciously imitated crime techniques they saw on television.

Laboratory studies, says Ronald Slaby, media-violence expert at the Education Development Center, also show that media violence has an aggressor effect. Children who watch a violent TV show, for example, act more aggressive immediately after the show.

How does TV violence mislead young people?

Children and youth are affected by the sheer quantity of violence on TV and in the movies. But perhaps more damaging are the false messages that media violence sends.

Violence is often rewarded and seldom has negative consequences. According to the 1 National Television Violence Study by Mediascope, perpetrators go unpunished in 7 percent of all violent scenes on television.

Violence is everywhere. Slaby tells the story of a preschooler who was informed of the death of her friends father. Who killed him? she asked. Her question reflected the assumption, drawn from television, that violence was the normal cause of death.

Violence is justified. Much of the violence on television is committed by the hero of the show. The National Television Violence Study found that aggression by good guys is rarely punished; even bad guys are punished only 6 percent of the time. Power Rangers, like countless war movies, teaches that violence by good guys is not only justified but heroic.

Violence is funny. Laugh tracks in shows like The Three Stooges often follow actions like whacking someone over the head. Childrens cartoons are especially likely to present violence as funny.

Violence is pleasurable. Clint Eastwood, in Dirty Harry, finds violence so enjoyable that he encourages people to provoke him -- a violent act would make my day.

Which young people are most susceptible to influence by media violence?

Three factors are strong predictors, according to Slaby

1) Identifying with one of the characters. The response, therefore, depends on which character the viewer identifies with. Since aggressors in the media are usually male and females are usually victims, for example, boys are more likely to respond with aggression and girls with fear.

) Interpreting what they see as realistic and relevant to their own lives. Media violence is more likely to have a strong effect, therefore, on children who see violence in their lives. It also has a stronger effect on young children, who lack the real-life experience to judge whether something they see is realistic.

) Personal fantasizing about the characters on a violent show. Daydream reruns increase the influence of scenes a child has watched.

In addition, says Slaby, the context in which violence is presented is crucial. In Shakespeares tragedies and in TV shows like the popular Civil War series, violence is shown realistically, with its suffering and tragic aftermath. But such realistic, prosocial portrayals of violence account for only about 4 percent of TV programming.

How do most children and young people react to media violence?

Most people, of course, dont become violent when they watch TV or movie violence. But they may be affected in other ways. Slaby lists four effects of media violence

an aggressor effect--encouraging violent behavior

a victim effect--increasing fearfulness

a bystandereffect--leading to callousness, accepting violence as normal

an appetite effect--building a desire to watch more violence.

These effects combine, says media expert George Gerbner of the Annenberg Center for Public Policy, University of Pennsylvania, to create a mean world syndrome, a perception that the community and society in which we live are frightening and crime-ridden.

On a personal level, according to Gerbner, these fears lead to alienation and isolation. On a policy level, they fuel support for repressive policies and increased incarceration. Violence-prevention expert Deborah Prothrow-Stith of the Harvard School of Public Health, says media violence both reflects and contributes to a growing culture of meanness, a fertile ground for real-life violence.

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Are Pretextual stops by the Police Constitutional?

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This issue involved the case of Whren v. United States in which the issue of Pretextual stops by the police are in violation of the constitution's fourth amendment. The case was spurned when undercover narcotics agents stopped two African American men in their vehicle. The officers did not have the probable cause to stop the men for narcotics but did stop them for violating traffic laws and from that stop, narcotics were discovered.

Justice Antonin Scalia wrote the majority opinion that affirmed the trial court and appellate courts decision that the pretextual stop involved in Whren was constitutional. Citing that the officers first must have probable cause or reasonable suspicion in stopping an individual was the main point in the decision. This limitation on the government prevents police from stopping individuals in their vehicles for no reason other than a hunch. With that said, the decision allowed authorities to conduct investigations on suspects that did indeed violate a law. It would be impossible to know that a suspects vehicle contained contraband without first being able to stop the individual.

This issue could not be without controversy if there was not a sizable debate or group opposing the decision. David A Harris, a professor of criminal law and procedure, believes that the Supreme Court overlooked the racial implications. He believes that minorities have and will continually be targets of pretextual stops merely because of their color. He also believes that due to the bumper-to-bumper regulations imposed on motor vehicles, it is next to impossible to not violate the regulations to some extent. That leaves practically everyone in a country that is highly dependent on motor vehicles for transportation.

Personally I accept the Supreme Court's decision that pretextual stops are constitutional. In our modern world, there is a vast array of limits on police powers and the burden of proof is higher now than ever before. I believe the burden of proof is higher because of a constant flow of court decisions and philosophical views on what constitutes a crime. An example is the definition of sex. Prior to the President Clinton and Monica Lewinsky scandal, practically everyone knew what sex was but litigation blurred the line of what we know and what is reasonable doubt.

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The Whren case supports my belief that litigation makes it more difficult for police to catch criminals because afterall, the two men did have in their possession crack cocaine. Rather than simply accept that what they were doing was criminal from the beginning, the attorneys tried to attack the stop itself. It wasn't the officers fault the men were engaged in illegal activity but the stop was legal because a traffic law was broken.

Keeping to the subject, our modern world has become plagued by terrorist cells within our own borders. These cells operate with the utmost secrecy and while the promise of freedom brings in immigrants from war torn countries fleeing to make a better life for themselves, it also attracts people who use the protections of the constitution to shield their activities. A federal investigation into a suspected terrorist may require a considerable amount of time before probable cause could even be established but with the ability to use something as simple as a pretextual stop, an investigation could turn into an arrest.

I reject in part the belief of David Harris that most pretextual stops are race driven. As I have learned in other courses, different races tend to congregate into racial neighborhoods such as China Town's or Black Harlem. If a white officer was to stop a so called minority in one of these neighborhoods, which contains a very high number of a specific race like Chinese in China Town, then it would be called a racial stop. The odds that an officer stops a Chinese citizen are astronomically higher than stopping an African American.

In summary, the balancing of constitutionality in this case is well kept because the government must have probable cause or reasonable suspicion and the public must abide by all laws, not only those involving motor vehicles. As pointed out in the book discussion, Americans use more automobiles than any country in Europe. Along with that fact, we are also victims of convenience. We want to go wherever we want, whenever we want and to be stopped is an inconvenience.

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