Germany's fault in ww1

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development of political and military alliances caused tension and hostility among nations leading up to World War I. Two major alliance systems developed due to conflicting national interests, which had been evident during the past two decades throughout Europe. These were the "Triple Alliance" of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy and the "Triple Entente" of Britain, France and Russia. Also several smaller countries became indirectly involved in the alliances, which effectively divided Europe into two "Armed Camps". The events that lead up to the July crisis were imperial rivalry, arms race, alliances and the Balkan wars.

But why did Germany lost the war? Why was Germany weak? After all, its armies had won on the eastern front and were winning on the western front and had very good military machinery like submarines . But Germany was experiencing severe famine, most of the people were starving and the politicians were worried. In 1918 Germany also lost the support of Bulgaria, Austro-Hungary and Turkey. This made the situation worse for the Germans; not only were its people discontented; they had lost all support from the "Central Powers." It could be argued that due to their fears and defeat of the other "Central Powers" they initiated armistice talks in October 1918 with the Allies. But when America joined the war in 1917 they brought with them what both sides desperately needed; munitions, morale, fresh men, technology, food and new leadership. Although many of the victories against the Axis powers were not credited to America, they took a considerable amount of the strain away from the allies on the western front. Therefore the Allies could spare forces for new offensives against the Axis powers; they also provided the supplies for these offensives to take place. The Americans played their most vital role in the summer of 1918 when the German offensive threw the British and French forces back. Working with French and British soldiers they halted the final German offensive and then aided the Allied counter attack. Most notably on 12th September they defeated a particularly strong German salient at Saint-Mihiel capturing 14,000 men.

When World War I ended on November 11, 1918, peace talks went on for

Months due to the Allied leaders (France) wanting to punish the enemy and "Dividing the spoils of war." A formal agreement to end the war was made and called the treaty of Versailles. The issue that took the most time was the territorial aspect because the empires of Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman, and Germany had collapsed. These fallen empires had to be divided up and America's President Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau of France, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and David Lloyd George of Great Britain. The Treaty of Versailles was either a treaty of peace or a vengeance for the Germans.

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The Treaty of Versailles was enacted into history in June 1919 with Germany forced to accept sole responsibility for causing World War I, Guilt clause, article 231. Since then there has been considerable debate concerning the war but even today historians still cannot fully agree upon the causes. Some support has been given to the theory that Germany was totally responsible for the war, Fisher for example, in 1961 states that war in 1914 was not a "tragedy of miscalculations" but was brought about deliberately by German leaders for two main reasons: Germany wanted to fight an expansionist war aimed at establish Germany as a world power both economically and politically and also wanted to ease the tension on international political affairs. However substantial evidence does not support that view. Therefore the insistence by the victorious powers to include in the Treaty that Germany accepts total blame cannot be justified.

When Germany surrendered and changed its government, it expected a negotiated peace rather than the harsh terms of the Versailles treaty of 1919. The allies were determined to receive reparations for their losses and to see that Germany was never in a position to harm them again. Germany lost the Alsace-Lorraine to France and lost West Prussia to Poland. It also lost all its colonies and had to give up most of its coal, trains, and merchant ships, as well as its navy. Germany had to limit its army and submit to Allied occupation of Rhineland for 15 years. Worst of all, the Germans had to accept full responsibility for causing the war and, consequently pay its total cost. The Germans did not consider themselves anymore guilty than anyone else and could not possibly pay all of the costs demanded. The Versailles treaty seemed fair to the Allies point of view, but it did not ensure a lasting peace. By accepting the treaty the German

Government gained a bad name among its people. The war reparations put an enormous strain on a country already bankrupted by four years of war. The economic situation made matters worse because the German government could not pay off reparation requirements, so France invaded Ruhr in1923 to take over coalmines. The government encouraged the workers to resist passively, printing large amounts of currency to pay them. The result was an "inflation that wiped out savings, pensions, insurance, and other forms of fixed income, creating a revolution that destroyed the most stable elements of Germany" . Aided by the Dawes plan of 1924, which set reasonable amounts of reparations and provided for foreign loans, the brilliant German Minister Gustav Stresemann reorganized the monetary system and encouraged industry.

But Germany was no the only country who lost with the war. The Austria-Hungary Empire collapsed, the treaty which concern this Germany allied was the treaty of Saint-Germain, a peace treaty between the Allied powers and Austria after World War I, signed at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on September 10, 1919. The treaty required Austria, the only remaining part of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, to recognize the sovereignty of Hungary; to cede territories to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, and Italy; and to accept regulations protecting ethnic minorities within the new Austrian borders. The military clauses allowed Austria a volunteer force of 30,000 men, but the Austro-Hungarian navy was destroyed or distributed among the Allies. Financial reparations for war damages were called for, but money was never paid. "Article 88, which forbade any compromise of Austrian independence, were designed to prevent any future union with Germany" . This article was responsible for the Austro-German tensions of the 1930s, and it was discarded by Adolf Hitler, who annexed Austria in 1938.

For the Hungarian case, the peace treaty of Trianon was signed between Hungary and the Allies at the Grand Trianon Palace, Versailles, France, on June 4, 1920. The treaty, the acceptance of which had been delayed for some time by revolution in Hungary, included terms similar to those of the Treaty of Saint Germain between the Allies and Austria, except for specific territorial adjustments. In accordance with the treaty Hungary lost about two-thirds of its territory and half of its population through the loosed territory given to countries such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and to Austria; and of small sections of territory to Italy and Poland. The Hungarian army was limited. The treaty also provided that "livestock was to be furnished" by Hungary for devastated countries and that "Yugoslavia was to receive, without cost, annual allotments of coal from Hungary for five years". Financial reparations were to be made. The Hungarians resented the treaty, which was the cause of many subsequent disputes.

The treaty of Neuilly was signed at Neuilly, France, on November 27, 1919, for the defeated Bulgaria. By its terms, Bulgaria ceded small portions of territory to Yugoslavia, whose independence it thus recognized, and gave up its part of Thrace to Greece, thus sacrificing the Bulgarian seaboard on the Aegean Sea. Dobrogea (Dobruja) was restored to Romania by the terms of the treaty.

And for the last German allied, the treaty of Sevres, between Turkey and the Allied powers, excluding the USSR and the United States. The agreement was signed on August 10, 1920, at Sevres, France. It dissolved the Ottoman Empire and limited Turkey to the city of Constantinople and surrounding territory and to part of Asia Minor, or Anatolia.

But the Powers had also lost. European countries channeled all of their resources into total war, which resulted in enormous social change. The result of working together for a common goal seemed to be unifying European societies; Death knocked down all barriers between people. "All belligerents had enacted some form of a selective service, which leveled classes in many ways" . But wartime scarcities made luxury an impossibility and unfavorable. By the end of war 8.5 million people were dead, the double were wounded, famine were threatening may regions. International tensions had not ended. Britain declared not support to France in any aspect against Germany (except if Germany attacked first). Each country was looking for own benefits.

But this was not United States case. They rejected the Treaty of Versailles and stayed away from the Leagues of the Nations. However, European countries borrowed heavily from the United States during the war. Thus, they could never stay isolated from the outside world. For example, the Dawes Plan helped Germany recover from inflation by letting them borrow two hundred million to rebuild on. Charles Dawes, an American banker and statesmen headed it. The United States became an important source of income for all the countries. The Isolation issue never came successful since problems occurred across the world. United States expanded their business across the globe. They expanded their overseas operations to Latin America. Many countries depended on United States' goods too. The world economy was based on the United States. "They were like a balanced house of cards. If the United States fell, the whole world would collapse with it."

Because of all of the above, it can be clearly seen that although the "great War" had ended and the supposed Guilty country wad been punished, every European country lost something, whether it was land, money, population, reputation or power. For common benefit, a reconsideration of attitude between countries had to be made in order to gain, whether it was money by letting the market flow again, or international support.

Bibliography

http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Dimension/7689/arm.html

http://campus.northpark.edu/history/Koeller/TII/VersaillesTreaty.N.html

http://www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us/%7Ebsilva/projects/great_war/causes.htm

http://www.attridge15.freeserve.co.uk/20th_century/ww1_end.htm

http://momo.essortment.com/versaillestrea_reif.htm

Albertini, Luigi. The Origins of the War of 1914, II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1953

Tierney, Brian, Kagan, Donald and Willams, L. Pearce. The Outbreak of World War I—Who Was Responsible?. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1977.

"World War I," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

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Analyse the effect that 'Journeys End' might have had on a first night audience in December 1928.What view of war and soldiers does it put across?

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World War I was triggered by political issues. It was confidently believed that the war would be over by Christmas, however it lasted for four long years. During those bitter years of fighting millions of young men lived and died in the trenches either side of no-mans land. Although millions lost their lives the British public threw massive parties celebrating their victory over Germany and the Triple Alliance. At the time the British public were unaware of the horrific nature of the Great War; instead they saw it as a glory filled victory, well fought and full of heroes. R C Sherriff's play 'Journeys End' was written to give an insight into what life was really like at the front-line at a level the general public could understand and relate to, the play therefore would have had considerable shock horror value.

The play is set in 118, the last year of the war. The German army was once again preparing a massive attack against the allies and it is against this threatening backdrop that the play opens. The British army was very different to what it is today; only men were allowed to fight, women were expected to stay at home and work the land and the public services. In 118 men did not obtain their rank through training and experience but through their class and which school they had been to. All officers would have been to public school. On the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month in the year 118 an armistice was signed; the war was at an end. 118 was a year of optimism, the public called it the Great War and said that the war to end all wars had been won.

The play was first performed in 18. It was the 10th anniversary of the armistice and memoirs flooded the public from all directions. Among the authors were Siegfried Sasson, Robert Graves and R C Sherriff. The ten years which had past since the war had given those involved a chance to think out their experiences and digest its horrors and lessons. 18 was also a year of uncertainty and disillusionment. With the certainty of peace shattered people seemed ready to hear the truth about war.

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The structure of the play is intense with a period of four years concentrated into four days and the whole play set in the confined space of the officers' dugout. The action in the play is well planned. Long periods of quiet give an eerie atmosphere with short intense fighting providing a strong contrast. Almost as important in this play as conversation is the stage directions; after Raleigh's death R C Sherriff uses pathetic fallacy in his setting, " The faint rosy glow of dawn is deepening to an angry red ", reflecting the unfairness of a young mans premature death and the anger Stanhope felt at himself for his earlier treatment of his friend. Another use of stage directions to give information that the conversation can't or won't give is in the details of the set. Here we are told that magazine pictures of ' girls in flimsy costumes' are pinned to the walls; this reminds the audience that the play is about young men away from home, isolated and perhaps lonely.

In 'Journeys End' the interaction of the characters is what gives the audience their main insight into war. In every play relationships have an important part to play. R C Sherriff has purposely chosen very different characters so that they will conflict and provide dramatic tension. The most controversial character is arguably Stanhope, who has a drinking habit which verges on alcoholic. When Raleigh, a friend from both home and school, arrives his reaction is not the friendly support you'd expect but a cold resentful air, "(He stops short at the at the sight of RALEIGH. There is silence.) " . However there is another side to Stanhope which in the main only appears when he talks to Osbourne, showing the audience that it wasn't all trust and unity in the trenches but a lot about keeping up a front; "must have somebody to tuck me up in bed ", this side of Stanhope is softer and shows a need for love. The men's talk gives another impression of Stanhope " He's a long way the best company commander we've got", showing they think a lot of him. This shows the audience that even the best men crack up under the pressures of war. A situation involving Raleigh not only gives further insight into Stanhope's character but provides the audience with more shocks about war. The first involves Raleigh, who wants to send a letter home. Stanhope's anger and determination to read this letter and therefore, in his eyes, prevent his girlfriend finding out about his drinking habit tells the audience not only that he is ashamed of himself and highly values his loved ones' opinions but backs up again that war was as much about false fronts as about the real characters of men.

Osbourne and Trotter are far less complex characters who nonetheless still show the audience different ways of dealing with war. Stemming from his added years Osbourne has the nickname uncle which he fully lives up to, "Come along, old chap. You come and lie down here." Caring for others seems to help him deal with the pressures of war. Osbourne's caring manner would have endeared him to the audience. R C Sherriff uses Osbourne's death to stress to the audience the unfairness of war; Osbourne was a kind man who hated war, he did not deserve to die and the audience would have felt the unfairness of his death very strongly. Another way Osbourne has of dealing with war is to read, in particular Alice in Wonderland a child's book set in nonsense land; Osbourne had to live with war which was a far extreme of seriousness and horror, Alice in Wonderland went so far in the other extreme of light heartedness and nonsense that it allowed him, for a few moments, to escape the gruelling reality that faced him. This is demonstrated in Act when the only thing that that could distract Raleigh from the thought of the raid was Osbourne's nonsense quote from Alice " ' The time has come, the Walrus said,......'."

Trotter seems to me an even simpler character than Osbourne. His method of coping was to count down the hours until he could leave on a chart. This simplistic, down to earth manner stemmed from his lack of imagination. " Funny not to have an imagination, must be rather nice", although it probably was a benefit because he unlike the others did not spend half his time thinking what if; however it was also a disadvantage because he could not escape from reality in the way that Osbourne and Raleigh could. Trotter's reaction to Osbourne's reading of Alice showed the audience this. " I don't see the point in that " and " You are a funny chap " was all Trotter could say.

As you would expect in a war play there are some very dramatic scenes. The most dramatic I think is in Act when Hibbert begs to be sent down the line claiming he has neuralgia but Stanhope sees straight through him for the coward that he is. This causes a heated argument with Stanhope showing his position as captain" (quietly ) You're going to stay here ", and Hibbert, who had worked himself up into a frenzy, trying to leave against Stanhope's orders "STANHOPE thrusts him back with a lightening movement HIBBERT raises his stick and strikes blindly at STANHOPE ". As soon as this happens Stanhope comes over very commanding officer, swearing at Hibbert and taking hold of his revolver, " You know what this means don't you? striking a superior officer!". After this Hibbert becomes openly cowardly " I'll never go up those steps again - into the line". This scene not only reveals to the audience the extreme respect demanded of superiors but also that in war cowardice was just as common place as heroism.

Although Raleigh's death scene is perhaps not as dramatic as the scene above, it is without doubt the most poignant scene in the play. There are many incidents throughout the play building up Raleigh's image as a young inexperienced boy, straight from school and typical of thousands sent to war. This is emphasised again in his death scene " I got kicked in just the same place at rugger ". Comparing a fatal wound to a rugby injury reminds the audience just how young and inexperienced Raleigh is. The fact that Raleigh doesn't know he's dying and the audience do is a good example of dramatic irony. " But I - I can't go home just for a knock in the back", tells the audience not just how inexperienced Raleigh is (he genuinely doesn't realise the extent of the injury) but also something of the pressure young men were under to join up. Raleigh was in agony but he still couldn't bear the thought of having to be sent home. Although seeing a young man die is emotional, I think the most poignant aspect of the scene is Stanhope's pain and anguish. Men die, the audience knows that but the emotional suffering they went through was something unseen by the public. " Jimmy ", for the first time since Raleigh's arrival Stanhope uses his first name, this gives the audience an idea of the gravity of the situation and Stanhope's final realisation of his behaviour when it's too late. They could relate to Stanhope's situation. He had let his pride come between himself and his friend, he had been cruel when he should have been kind and now his friend was dying and their time together was ended.

In conclusion I believe that 'Journeys End' would have had an extraordinary effect on a first night audience; Those who had not been to war would have been forced to think about aspects of war that hadn't existed to them before and those in the audience who had already survived the horror of war would, I think have been relieved that people finally knew the truth. I believe that 'Journeys End' is written in a way which would have made the audience emotionally involved in the characters suffering and would therefore have suffered themselves, but overall I believe that 'Journeys End' would have given a first night audience a glance at the true horrific nature of war that should have shocked them to the depths of their souls.

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I dont have one

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November 11th, 175

The Dismissal of the Whitlam Government on November 11, 175 was the most dramatic political event in the history of Australias Federation.

Edward Gough Whitlams Labor government had been elected on December , 17 and was the first Labor government in years. Australias Prime Minister for 16 years was Robert Menzies, whose Liberal Party governed in coalition with the Country Party. After Menzies retirement in 166, the government went into a steady decline until it was defeated by Whitlam.

The new government was elected in a climate of great hope and optimism. Its demise a mere three years later at the hands of the Senate and the Governor-General is a fascinating political story that is still relevant to this day.

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What Happened?

A brief overview of what happened on November 11, 175 and why it remains a significant event in Australian political history.

Background To 17

The Whitlam Government was the first Labor government for years, since the defeat of Ben Chifley in 14. It was elected at a time of growing disillusionment with the Vietnam War, a concern about Australias place in the world and great social change.

Gough Whitlam

Whitlam was born in Melbourne in 116. He grew up in Canberra and entered Parliament in 15, becoming deputy leader of the ALP in 161 and leader in 167. He won a 7% swing to his party in the 16 election, rescuing it from the electoral disaster of 166.

His 17 election was the result of a program of party reform, policy development and political salesmanship. The Program he presented to the people in 17 still stands as the most definitive statement of policies ever proposed at an election.

Thirty years on, Whitlam is a Labor Party icon, the martyred leader. He continues to speak on public issues.

Chronology

The years 17-175 were a whirlwind of activity, controversy and change, culminating in the dramatic events of October 175 when the coalition parties in the Senate used their numbers to delay passage of the governments Supply Bills. A three-week constitutional impasse followed, culminating in Whitlams dismissal by the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, on November 11.

Political & Constitutional Issues The Key Questions

The Dismissal raised a number of important constitutional, parliamentary and political issues, most of which remain unresolved to this day. Should the Senate have the right to block money bills? How should a government respond when this happens? Should the Governor-General intervene in conflicts between the houses? When should the Governor-General intervene?

Sir John Kerr

The man appointed by Whitlam to the position of Governor-General in 174 is variously portrayed as a man of principle, a deceiver, an insecure man desperate to make his mark on history, a drunk.

Aftermath and Effects

The Dismissal was the most traumatic and significant political event in the first one hundred years of the Australian federation, but constitutionally little was changed by it. Malcolm Fraser initiated a referendum in 177 to ensure that the casual Senate vacancy rules could not be manipulated by State governments, but no other constitutional changes have occurred. The most significant change is probably political. It is difficult now to imagine the Senate being able to repeat its 175 performance. The question of an Australian republic was rekindled by the Dismissal, but this issue also remains unresolved.

Dismissal Documents

Theyre all here the letter of dismissal from Sir John Kerr, the advice tendered by the Chief Justice of the High Court, Sir Garfield Barwick, the proclamation dissolving Parliament, the letter from the Queens Secretary, and others.

Dismissal Sound Archive

A rare collection of audio files from the Whitlam era, including recordings from the House of Representatives shortly after the Dismissal, the full version of the famous Kerrs Cur speech by Whitlam, the policy speeches given by Whitlam and Fraser, and much more.

Dismissal Images

A collection of pictures from the Whitlam era, including photographs taken on November 11, 175.

Web Links

A collection of web links relating to Whitlam and the Dismissal.

Whitlam Speeches

Gough Whitlam is now 86, but he remains an active contributor to the political debates in Australia. Alone among all of the nations former leaders, he inspires a full measure of devotion.

News

The Dismissal still makes news and will continue to do so in the coming years, especially now that official Cabinet papers are released each year under the 0-year rule.

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Common sence

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Where's the common sense in that?

Good morning teachers and fellow students. Ppl in the world today r saying things and acting with absolutely no common sense. Ppl r cheating in stock markets , sueing teachers 4 things that happened over 0 years ago & logging forests, then complaining about the increasing risk of green house gases!!! Cases such as the Mc Donalds scandal, hot coffee and some wars show us just how much some ppl lack common sense.

The definition of the words common sense is common general or shared by all and sense the ability to think and act sensibly and intelligently. So really the ppl and persons I'm going to be talking to you about lack the general and sheared knowledge of thinking sensibly and intelligently.

Why just last year we had an obvious case of someone not using their common sense and sueing Mc Donald's for making him over weight. I mean honestly why didn't he see he was getting over weight and read the free informative pamphlet supplied by Mc Donald's clearly stating how much fat content there is in their food. Seriously where is the common sense in that?

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And whilst researching my topic I found out about a case where a man sued a coffee shop because he ordered a coffee and spilt it in his lap. Why didn't he realise when he ordered his coffee that it would be hot, I mean when you order a coffee you don't expect to receive a frozen caffeinated drink that you can't spill. Honestly where is the common sense in that.

And earlier this year we saw how one man not using his common sense got many ppl killed by ordering a so called holy war against the US. I am of course addressing the war Iraq. The Iraqi defence minister claimed that to the Iraqi ppl this was a holy war, but a holy war is actually between religious groups not countries battling for dominance. Where is the common sense in that?

And a topic that all us children know and keep close at heart is the inevitable no hat no play rule. Over the years I have learnt that this is just a ruler that implies that children have to use common sense in their everyday lives & although it in my opinion it is an excellent rule the consequences for braking this old rule and normally far too harsh. For simply playing without your hat for days you could land yourself with lunchtime papers, detentions, writing I MUST WEAR MY HAT!!!! 100 times and in my previous experiences receiving a red note and after receiving of these notes you miss out on the next fun event the school holds. When the common sense punishment would be to tell the little dear to go and sit in the shade with his or her friends.

And on a leaving note the next time you go to do something out of the ordinary I want you stop and ask yourself where is the common sense in that??

Please note that this sample paper on common sence is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on common sence, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on common sence will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Internet Censorship

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Need for Internet Censorship

A forum where speech and conduct can be hard to regulate, the Internet poses serious problems when it comes to minors accessing inappropriate sites. After all, kiddies' cartoons and adult magazines are all accessed in the same way and it is this very reason that prompts some kind of control over the access and content of the Internet.

The above brings to light a much debated issue Is it the responsibility of parents or the government to implement measures to ensure that underage children not be exposed to potentially depraving content?

While a knee-jerk reaction to the problem would be to simply propose censorship, this opposes the "Library Bill of Rights" which stresses that "Materials should not be proscribed or removed because of partisan or doctrinal disapproval." ("Sex, Censorship, and the Internet", http//www.eff.org/CAF/cafuiuc.html) The Library Bill of Right protects principles of intellectual freedom developed for libraries which, if viewed laterally, can also be applied to the Internet. A library is after all a depository where knowledge and material are pooled to assist in the understanding and evaluation of issues, concepts and theories. Likewise, the Internet, previously mainly for military use, has today evolved radically to an important source of information that caters to everyone from the businessman to children wanting to access online television guides to online gaming.

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Although the Internet is a relatively new media paradigm which is indicative of its lack of social and legal mechanisms as compared to more traditional forms of media like the telephone, radio or the television, it remains a media tool (similar to televisions) which also doubles as the basis for many forms of communication (similar to telephones) like electronic mail. This intrinsic nature of the Internet points to the one-dimensional implication that the Internet should indeed be regulated the same way as telephones, radios or televisions should.

However, this inference does not take into account the fact that the telephone, radio and television are government-supervised monopolies which gives the government the right to supervise content passing through these mediums. A country attempting to supervise and regulate content passing in and out of its virtual boundaries is likely to face more political ramifications than if it tried controlling the release of its content on its local radio station. Because the Internet today transcends all categories and does not fit into a single categorization, the Internet can be seen as 'belonging' to the public of the world as compared to than how a news station of a country 'belongs' to the public of that country. It is therefore very difficult to come to a common agreement to appropriately demarcate the social responsibilities and obligations of authors and information providers from different countries.

As society becomes more affluent and the boundaries of the world meld together to form a single, seamless virtual system, it is easy to think that what applies in one society would also apply in another. In most countries where democracy is customary, we therefore tend to think that the free flow of ideas and information is highly valued, and that freedom of expression is a right every individual is entitled to, not given.

Evidently, for all its usefulness and the good that it brings, the Internet does bring about a fair share of problems. Complete censorship would require any person with Internet access around the world to abide by a common law and this in turn would require every country around the world to cooperate and come to a common agreement on the measures to take to implement proper conduct and the netiquette of its citizens. This concept is simple enough to grasp, albeit naïve.

Take for example, the short-lived Communications Decency Act (CDA) of the United States of America. The CDA considered "indecent" speech on the Internet to be deplorable, and defines indecency as "speech depicting or describing sexual or excretory acts or organs in a patently offensive fashion under contemporary community standards." ("The Internet Censorship FAQ", http//www.spectacle.org/freespch/faq.html#1)

Each of the clauses proposed by the CDA indecent, depicting or describing, patently offensive, and contemporary community standards, concealed the suppression that would threaten the future of freedom of speech in the country. The short lifespan of the CDA demonstrated the significance and importance of freedom of expression to the people that even the Courts could not repress.

Therefore, a proposal would be for authors of information providers to optionally classify the content of their own material in objective, machine-readable forms and then signed using a secure digital signature. This allows browser programs to filter material on criteria to be decided by individual users and in particular by adults responsible for children. However, this leads to the issue of subjectivity of individual classification. The character and integrity of the classifier would then have to be factored into the accuracy and reliability of the classification and this suggests the need for an impartial single point of authority on top of the author's classification. The credibility and perceived sensitivity of this classifier is very important.

Based on the classifications available to users, individuals can then set their browsers to filter the material to access. More conservative readers can choose to avoid documents falling outside their target classes whereas more liberal readers have the option of accessing material with no classification despite the possibility of potentially offensive contents. ("Protecting Our Innocents", http//www.csse.monash.edu.au/publications/15/tr-cs5-4/15.4.html)

This arrangement allows control of access to sensitive material, particularly access by children in the care of adults and also solves the problem of disagreement between countries with regard to level of censorship.

Case Study

In 1, The Australian Federal Government was contemplating the implementation of a new policy that would block all sites relating to or containing dubious keywords. This required online service providers to either to undertake the responsibility to remove RC or X-rated material from the Internet once they have been notified of its existence or the information would be blocked. ("GILC Statement on Australian Net Censorship Plan ", http//www.gilc.org/speech/australia/gilc-statement-.html) This policy, while seemingly innocent and justified, in fact caused much inconvenience to persons who had justifiable reasons for accessing these sites or were put into such situations beyond their control.

An international student from Thailand who lived in one of the University's hall of residences fell into the latter category. Because his family name contained the word 'porn', every time he tried to load up a page which required his full name to be typed on the page (email login, internet banking, etc.), the page he tried to access would be re-directed as the college system processing the information given to it would pick up on the 'porn' in his name.

This might seem reasonable because after all, there has to be some way of social and legal mechanism that controls content. After all, such mechanisms of traditional media, although imperfect, successfully manage to curb and control content, so why would it not be appropriate to apply these measures to the Internet?

Reasons for such measures

The phrase 'prevention is better than cure' is perhaps the best reason for Internet censorship of such degree. The inconvenience of a few individuals does not and cannot sufficiently efface the fact that an underage person might possibly be able to gain access to undesirable content which would could have potentially damaging effects in the later years of the minor's life if such measures are not taken. After all, the persons that would fall under this category belong to the minority, and the implementation would effectively only negatively impact only a small group of people. The general well-being of our children and the integrity of the Internet versus the inconvenience of a small group of people, it appears that the good this implementation will result in definitely outweigh the bad.

Traditional media has been around for much longer than the Internet and even social and legal mechanisms of traditional media are imperfect. We therefore cannot expect to develop a mechanism for such a new paradigm that pleases everyone and achieves the maximum overall good as yet. Also, no matter how optimal a solution is, there is bound to be grey areas that cannot be covered. This understanding applies to the Internet as well and leads back to the previous argument where a sacrifice has to be made either in the context of the healthy growth of children around the world, or the inconvenience of the minority.

Reasons against such measures

The inherent purpose of the Internet is to enable free speech and information sharing. Imposing censorship completely defeats this purpose, and degrades the Internet back to yet another supervised forum. While I do agree that there must be some degree of control over the content on the Internet, imposing such stringent constraints that indirectly segregates persons for reasons beyond their control seems very much unfair. Although one may argue that the Australian Federal Government was not aware of the repercussions their decision might make (i.e. disallowing persons from different cultures access to the Internet) due to the lack of understanding of different cultures, Australia, which prides itself on having a multicultural society, should create personal settings and/or profiles for individuals where such unusual circumstances arise. Ignorance should not and cannot serve as an excuse here.

To gain access to the Internet, or in this case, for the Thai student previously mentioned, usually requires the details and sometimes credit card to sign up for an Internet account. The rule should make exceptions for such individuals and where appropriate, automatically create a personal profile for these users if their details justify their reasons for dubious keywords. This prevents these users from facing the inconvenience and humiliation directed at their culture.

Conclusion

Therefore, the point to note would be that censorship is not the answer to protect minors or to improve the integrity of the Internet. Instead, a mutual trust that adults will responsibly supervise the Internet access of children using various technological means (like using net nannies) needs to be established between the public and government. Individuals should also be allowed to select the sexual content level of the material they want to view. This eliminates the problem of unknowingly victimizing innocent persons. Beyond that, only extreme situations would call for censorship.

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